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NEGATIVE 
NO.  95-82388- 1 0 


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Author: 


U.S.  Bureau  of  Foreign 
and  Domestic  Commerce 

Title: 

The  men's  factory-made 
clothing  industry 

Place: 

Washington,  D.C. 

Date: 

1916 


MASTER   NEGATIVE   # 


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U,   i^.     Bureau  of  forei^^n"  and  donestic  comnorce. 
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Rey^ort  on  the  cent  of  production  of  non^s  factory 
TTxdo  clothing  \x\  the  United  Staton,      Washington, 
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300      .    incl.    t'blon.        plates.^      25   en.      (Vds- 
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DEPARTMENT    OF    COMMERCE 

BUREAU  OF  FOREIGN  AND  DOMESTIC  COMMERCE. 
B.  E.  PRATT,  Chief 


MISCELLANEOUS  SERIES-No.  34 


THE  MEN'S  FACTORY-MADE  CLOTHING 

INDUSTRY 

OBRAHY 

REPORT  ON  THE  COST  OF  PRODUCTION  OF 

ADEN'S  factory-ma:  C  CLOTHING 

IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


WASHINGTON 
OOVBKNMENT  PKINTINO  OFFICS 


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LIBRARY 


School  of  Business 


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DEPARTMENT    OF    COMMERCE 

BUREAU  OF  FOREIGN  AND  DOMESTIC  COMMERCE 
E.  E.  PRATT,  Chief 


MISCELLANEOUS  SERIES— No.  34 


THE  MEN'S  FACTORY-MADE  CLOTHING 

INDUSTRY 


REPORT  ON  THE  COST  OF  PRODUCTION  OF 

MEN'S  FAQORY-MADE  CLOTHING 

IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1916 


I 


CONTENTS 


ADDITIONAL  COPIES 

OF  THIS  PXJBUCATION  MAT  BE  PBOCUBKD  VftOM 

THB  SUPERINTENDENT  Ot  DOCUMKNTS 

OOYEBNMENT  PRINTmO  OmCS 

WAamNQTON,  O.  C. 

▲T 

45  CENTS  PER  COPY 


V 

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\ 


Letter  of  submittal ^ 

Introduction ® 

History  of  the  clothing  trade ^ 

The  industry  during  the  Civil  War 10 

Development  after  the  war H 

Effect  of  immigration 12 

Introduction  of  task  system 12 

Insanitary  shop  conditions 13 

Introduction  of  subdivision  of  labor 15 

Immigration  of  tailors 15 

Introduction  of  the  large  inside  shop 18 

Tailor-to-the-trade  houses 19 

Decline  of  the  separate  trousers  businefls 19 

Decline  of  the  jobbing  business 20 

The  last  important  strike 21 

Growth  of  tie  industry 21 

Scope  and  method  of  investigation 23 

Summary ^9 

Capital,  net  sales,  and  turnover 39 

Cost  and  profit,  by  establishments 41 

Cost  and  profit,  by  specified  units 42 

Selling  methods 43 

Earnings  of  employees - 44 

Imports - ^ 

Exports 45 

Chapter  I.— Capital,  net  sales,  and  turnover 47 

Manufacturing  and  final  profit 47 

Percentages  of  profit  on  capital  and  net  sales 48 

Turnover  of  capital 49 

Profits  earned  by  large  and  small  establishments 50 

Chapter  II.— Cost  and  profit  by  establishments 52 

Cost  and  profit  based  on  net  sales 52 

Percentages  of  specified  items  of  cost 56 

Percentages  of  cost  and  profit,  by  establishments 56 

Profit  not  dependent  on  labor  cost 64 

Cost  based  on  manufacturing  and  selling  expense 64 

Manufacturing  and  selling  cost,  by  establishments 70 

Total  direct  and  indirect  labor 83 

Sales  and  profits  in  previous  years 85 

Chapter  III.— Cost  and  profit  by  specified  units 87 

Cost  and  profit  of  units  sold  to  retailers 87 

Description  of  units 95 

Units  sold  at  a  profit  and  at  a  loss 106 

Cost  and  profit  by  grades  of  garments 107 

Cost  of  materials  in  units 109 

Proportionate  cost  of  various  materials 124 

Cost  of  direct  labor  in  unit '^^ 

8 


%  \ 


4  CONTENTS. 

Chapter  III.— Cost  and  profit  by  epecified  units— Continued.  Page. 

Unit  cost,  including  depreciation  and  interest 138 

Cost  affected  by  increased  prices  of  wool 141 

Chapter  IV.— Manufacturing  conditions 146 

Principal  manufacturing  centers 145 

Advantj^s  of  the  different  centers  as  to  labor 145 

Advantages  of  the  principal  centers  as  to  market ^ 146 

Large  and  small  factories 147 

Changes  in  manufacturing  and  trade  conditions 149 

Proportionate  value  of  cloth 149 

Importance  of  styles 151 

Manufacturing  for  orders 151 

Mail-order  houses  and  tailors-to-the-trade 152 

Specialization 1^2 

Manufacturing  clothing  no  longer  a  staple  business 153 

Contract  shops ^^ 

Home  work 1^^ 

The  efficient  clothing  factory 160 

The  factory  and  its  management 160 

The  wage  and  task  systems 167 

The  service  department 171 

Model  clothing-factory  buildings 176 

Improvements  in  factory  construction 176 

Inefficient  methods  of  manufacturing 179 

Improperly  laid  out  plants 180 

Handwork  and  machine  work 180 

Shrinking  cloth 182 

Inventories 1^2 

The  cutting  room 183 

Routing 184 

Training  of  help  and  method  of  work 186 

The  office 188 

Chapter  V.— Working  conditions 189 

Changes  in  labor  conditions 189 

Piecework  and  time-work ' 1^ 

Earnings  and  hours  of  labor 192 

Chapter  VI.— Cost-finding  and  accounting  conditions 219 

Simplified  cost  accounting 220 

The  quantity  method 221 

The  direct-labor  method . . '. 222 

The  prime-cost  mcthol 222 

The  dual  method 223 

Accounting  conditions 226 

True  costs  and  how  to  figure  them 229 

Chapter  VII.— Selling  conditions 234 

Selling  expenses 234 

Selling  methods 239 

Trade  abuses 246 

Chapter  VIII.— Machinery  and  processes 252 

Machinery  for  making  clothing 252 


Treatment  and  preparation  of  cloth 
Manufacturing  processt^s 

Coat  processes 

Vest  processes 

Pants  processes —  -  . 


261 
264 
266 
270 
272 


w^-v 


CONTENTS. 


%5^ 


^ 


Pag«. 
274 
274 
277 
283 
286 


Chapter  IX.— Foreign  trade 

Imports 

E  xports 

Imports  into  other  countries 

Suggestions  for  increasing  foreign  trade 

Reports  from  American  consuls... ^^ 

British  Columbia 

British  Honduras 

China 

Colombia 

Coeta  Rica 

Cuba 

England 

Germany 

Guatemala 

India 

Mexico 

Norway 

Nova  Scotia 

Scotland 

South  Africa 

Spain 

Turkey 

Chapter  X.— Glossary 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

(FoUowing  p.  300.) 
Fig. 


287 

287 

288 

288 

289 

289 

290 

290 

292 

294 

294 

295 

295 

296 

296 

296 

297 

298 


Fig. 
1. 
2. 

3. 

4. 
5. 

6. 
7. 
8. 

9. 
10. 

11. 
12. 

13. 
14. 

15. 
16. 
17. 


18 


Rotary  or  circular  cutting  machine. 

Straight-knife  or  reciprocating  cutting 
machine. 

Machine   for   seaming   trousers   and 
other  garments. 

Seam-closing  machine. 

Left  forequarter  of  a  coat  made  on  a 
seam-closing  machine. 

Serging  machine. 

Work  done  on  serging  machine. 

Machine    for    serging    trousers    and 
other  garments. 

Canvas-front  making  machine. 

Work  done  on  canvas-front  making 
machine. 

Two-row  stitching  machine. 

Work  done  on  two-row  stitching  ma- 
chine. 

Sleeve-inserting  machine. 

Top  of  sleeve  gathered  on  gathering 
machine. 

Buttonhole  machine. 

Work  done  on  buttonhole  machine. 

Belt  loops  tacked  to  trousers  by  ma- 
chine. 

Machine  for  folding  and  stitching  belt 

loops. 


19.  Machine  for  folding  and  stitching  con- 

cealed-stitch belt  loops. 

20.  Button-sewing  machine. 

21.  Buttons  sewed  on  by  machine. 

22.  Pocket-making  machine. 

23.  Pocket  closed  on  pocket-making  ma- 

chine. 

24.  Machine  for  seaming  pockets. 

25.  Work  done  on  back-pocket-making 

machine. 

26.  Machine  for  seaming  outside  seam  on 

trousers. 

Machine  for  stitching  curtains  and 
waistband  canvas  to  French-waist 
trousers  in  one  operation. 

Lap-seam  felling  machine. 

Pants-flies  machine. 

30.  Fly  buttonholes  made  by  machine. 

31.  Binding  machine. 

32.  Coat  front. 

33.  Undercollar. 

34.  Coat  before  it  is  lined. 

35.  Front  of  coat. 

36.  Inside  of  coat. 

37.  Back  of  coat. 

38.  Shipping  room. 


27. 


28. 
29. 


tf  :v 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


"^ 


1. 


Department  of  Commerce, 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce, 

WasJiington,  January  5,  1916. 

Sir:  I  beg  to  submit  herewith  a  report  on  the  cost  of  production 
of  men's  ready-made  clothing,  which  is  the  fifth  of  a  series  of  reports 
issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  regarding 
the  cost  of  production  in  different  branches  of  the  clothing  industry. 

This  investigation  was  conducted  in  accordance  with  the  act  of 
Congress  approved  August  23,  1912.  In  addition  to  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction, the  report  contains  information  concerning  imports  and 
exports,  working  conditions,  factory  equipment,  seUmg  methods, 
and  other  trade  conditions  of  interest  m  connection  with  the  men's 
clothing  industry,  and  some  practical  suggestions  with  regard  to  effi- 
cient factory  management  based  on  interviews  with  manufacturers 
and  on  the  personal  observations  of  the  special  agents. 

According  to  the  Census  of  Manufactures,  the  value  of  men's  cloth- 
ing produced  in  the  United  States  was  $208,960,136  in  1899  and 
$485,677,493  in  1909,  an  increase  of  over  75  per  cent.  Under  the 
head  of  men's  clothing  the  Census  Bureau  includes  boys'  clothing 
and  such  outer  garments  as  overalls,  market  frocks,  butchers'  aprons, 
uniforms,  bathing  suits,  knee  pants,  and  gymnasium  and  sporting 
clothing.  Of  the  value  of  product  for  1909,  the  value  returned  by 
regular  factories  was  $439,860,259,  the  remaining  amount,  $45,817,234, 
which  is  mostiy  a  duphcation,  being  the  product  of  the  contract  shops. 

The  manufacture  of  ready-made  clothing  is  developed  to  a  far 
greater  extent  in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other  country.  The 
imports  of  men's  clothing  into  the  United  States  are  negligible.  The 
total  value  of  woolen  wearing  apparel  imported  for  consumption 
during  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1914,  not  including  gloves, 
hats,  hosiery,  and  knit  goods,  was  $1,633,700.  The  imports  con- 
sist ahnost  entirely  of  novelty  garments,  such  as  overcoats,  and 
golfing  and  motoring  clothes.  The  computed  ad  valorem  rate  of  duty 
on  wearmg  apparel,  composed  wholly  or  in  part  of  wool,  varied  from 
73.10  to  78.49  per  cent  during  the  fiscal  years  1898  to  1909,  and  from 
74.14  to  77.09  per  cent  during  the  fiscal  years  1909  to  1913.  By  the 
tariff  act  of  1913  the  rate  was  reduced  to  35  per  cent  ad  valorem. 
The  exports  of  clothing,  while  very  small  compared  with  the  domestic 

7 


.  4'^' . 


mmmm 


1 

i 


8 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


production,  are  larger  than  the  imports.  During  the  fiscal  year  1914 
the  exports  of  woolen  wearing  apparel  of  all  kinds  amounted  to 
$2,148,235.  Most  of  these  exports  went  to  North  American  countries, 
principally  Canada  and  Mexico. 

In  the  investigation  of  the  cost  of  production  of  men's  clothing, 
reports  were  secured  from  64  establishments,  located  in  eight  clothing- 
manufacturing  centers — ^New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Roch- 
ester, Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  Milwaukee.  Some  of  these 
establishments  were  large  and  some  small,  but  all  were  fairly  repre- 
sentative of  the  industry.  Their  sales  of  men's  clothing  during  their 
last  business  period,  usually  a  year,  amounted  to  $66,947,954. 

The  census  figures  for  1909,  which  are  the  latest  available,  show 
that  the  total  production  of  men's  clothing  in  that  year  amounted 
to  $485,677,493  in  value.  The  census  classification,  however,  in- 
cluded many  articles  of  manufacture  which  are  not  produced  by  the 
establishments  covered  by  this  investigation,  as  is  shown  on  page  21. 

The  concrete  results  of  the  investigation  appear  in  the  summary 
of  this  report,  while  the  detailed  information  is  given  in  the  various 
chapters. 

The  general  conduct  of  the  field  work  of  the  investigation  has  been 
under  the  direction  of  Walter  B.  Palmer,  a  special  agent  of  the  Bureau 
of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce.  In  the  field  work  and  in  the 
preparation  of  the  report  he  was  assisted  by  Special  Agents  David  M. 
Barclay,  Joseph  Broido,  Harry  Gell,  Thomas  Mills,  Stanley  D.  Win- 
derman,  and  Charles  F.  Yaudi.  The  general  direction  of  the  ofi&ce 
work  and  the  editing  of  the  report  have  been  in  charge  of  Gustavus  A. 
Weber,  expert  in  charge  of  the  cost  of  production  division,  assisted 
by  Henry  J.  Bierman. 

E.  E.  Pratt, 

Chief  of  Bureau, 
To  Hon.  William  C.  Redfield, 

Secretary  of  Commerce* 


tt  V 


^.J' 


^ 


THE  MEN'S  FACTORY-MADE  CLOTHING  INDUSTRY. 


INTEODUCTION. 
mSTOBY  OF  THE  CLOTHING  TBADE.  • 

The  ready-made  clothing  industry  developed  from  a  need  for 
clothing  that  coidd  be  dehvered  inmiediately  and  that  could  be  pur- 
chased at  lower  prices  than  were  charged  by  custom  tailors.  The 
industrial  revolution  and  the  early  establishment  of  the  factory  sys- 
tem in  Europe,  while  the  great  bulk  of  the  American  population  was 
still  following  agricultural  pursuits,  created  the  necessity  for  coarse 
work  clothes  in  Europe,  which  did  not  exist  until  later  in  the  United 
States.  Ready-made  clothing  was  unknown  in  this  country  before 
1825  and  its  manufacture  in  factories  did  not  begin  until  a  much  later 
date.  Before  ready-made  clothing  was  introduced,  clothing  was  made 
in  the  home  or  by  a  custom  tailor,  often  an  itinerant.  The  cloth  was 
sometimes  woven  in  the  home  and  sometimes  purchased. 

The  manufacture  of  ready-made  clothing  was  probably  an  out- 
growth of  the  secondhand  clothing  business,  which  originally  supplied 
me  demand  for  cheap  clothing.  Keadv-made  clothingwas  first  made 
up  to  supply  the  wants  of  hurriedly  departing  New  England  sailors 
and  of  tne  Negroes  on  the  plantations,  and  was  probably  first  pro- 
duced in  New  Bedford,  and  then  in  Boston  and  New  York.  The  first 
systematic  attempt  to  manufacture  ready-made  clothing  in  the  United 
States  began  early  in  the  thirties,  and  the  clothing  then  produced  was 
of  the  coarsest  materials  and  workmanship.  About  1831  George 
Opdyke,  once  mayor  of  New  York,  began  the  manufacture  of  ready- 
made  clothing  in  Hudson  Street."  Some  large  firms  which  exist 
to-day  had  their  beginning  and  were  well  estabhshed  before  the 
Civil  War.  The  South  and  the  West  were  the  chief  consumers  of 
the  early  coarse  ready-made  clothing,  the  consumers  being  the  sailors, 
plantation  negroes,  and  miners.  In  these  pioneer  days  the  manu- 
facturer was  a  retailer  also;  as  there  was  no  retail  outlet  for  his 
merchandise,  the  manufacturer  had  to  estabhsh  his  own  retail  stores 
to  dispose  of  his  product.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  Civil  War,  the 
amount  of  ready-made  clothing  was  not  extensive.  What  little 
manufacturing  was  done  was  in  the  large  coast  cities  of  the  East, 
Boston  and  New  York  particularly.  Here  only,  because  of  nearness 
to  the  woolen  markets  and  because  of  the  comparatively  large  labor 
supply,  was  such  manufacturing  possible.  The  sewing  was  all  done 
by  hand.  The  secondhand  clothing  business  had  established  markets 
and  trade  customs  that  were  taken  over  by  the  ready-made  clothing 

•  The  Clothingand  Famishing  Trade,  by  William  C.  Browning,  in  One  Hundred  Years  of  American 
Commerce,  Vol.  U,  p.  561. 

9 


i^ 


i 


10 


men's  factoey-made  clothing  industry. 


If 


manufacturers.  Many  custom  tailors  were  impressed  into  the  new 
business  as  the  latter  increased,  and  from  them  the  manufacturers 
acquired  technique. 

About  1850  the  sewing  machine,  invented  in  1846,  was  put  on  the 
market.  The  machine  at  first  was  cumbersome  and  slow  and  was 
usualhr  run  by  foot  power.  Moreover,  the  stitch  first  used  very  often 
ripped.  About  this  time  the  woolen  mills  had  begun  to  mandractiu'e 
raw  materials  cheaply,  and  they  started  to  manuiacture  material  for 
the  clothing  trade.  The  invention  of  the  lock  stitch  and  the  avail- 
ability of  cheap  raw  materials  greatly  increased  production.  In  1859 
there  were  4,014  establishments,  employing  114,800  wage  eamers,^ 
the  principal  centers  being  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Balti- 
more, Jlocnester,  and  Cincmnati.  St.  Louis  became  the  cnief  distrib- 
utor for  the  West  and  New  Orleans  for  the  South. 

In  1860  there  were  no  factories,  as  we  understand  the  term. 
Ready-made  garments  were  cut  by  the  manufacturer.     The  cheapest 

trades  were  sent  to  the  country  surrounding  the  principal  centers  to 
e  made  up  by  the  farmers'  women  folks  during  the  winter  months  or 
in  any  spare  time.  The  better  gjrades  were  sewed  by  city  workers 
in  their  nomes,  or  by  custom-tailor  employees  in  the  back  of  the 
custom  shops  during  the  slow  seasons.  The  entire  garment  was 
usuallv  made  by  one  worker.  By  some  German  taUors  the  work  was 
roughly  divided  into  machine  sewing,  basting,  and  finishing,  the 
women  of  the  tailors'  family  assisting  them. 

THE   INDUSTBY  DUBINO  THE   CIVIL  WAR. 

When  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  though  a  large  amount  of  clothing 
was  bought  in  Prague  and  Vienna,*  owing  to  the  inabihtv  of  American 
manufacturers  to  meet  the  sudden  demand,  and  thougn  the  Govern- 
ment manufactured  some  uniforms  from  purchased  cloth,  large 
quantities  of  uniforms  for  the  armies  were  oought  from  American 
manufacturers.  One  manufacturer  alone  received  an  order  for 
$1,250,000  worth.*  The  sudden  demand  for  uniforms  created  an 
industry  devoted  to  ready-made  clothing.  The  ready-made  cloth- 
ing manufacturers,  cut  off  from  their  chief  market,  the  South,  looked 
to  the  Govemnaent  to  replace  their  lost  business.  At  first  Army  uni- 
forms, like  ordinary  ready-made  clothing,  were  made  in  the  homes 
of  the  workers,  but  as  the  war  progressed  and  hurried  demands  for 
Army  clothing  increased,  factones  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of 
imiforms  were  established.  The  war  thus  created  factory  buildings, 
which  were  used  for  the  manufacture  of  civilian  ready-made  clothing 
when  the  war  was  oyer.  Without  the  sewing  machine  it  is  hardly 
probable  that  American  manufacturers  could  have  turned  out  in 
time  the  large  quantities  of  uniforms  required.  The  war  had  many 
other  beneficial  influences  on  the  trade.  In  the  Government  work- 
shops there  were  some  sort  of  standardization,  a  greater  subdivision 
of  labor,  and  efficient  factory  methods,  unknown  to  the  clothing 
manufacturer,  all  of  which  were  indirectly  to  influence  the  ready-made 
clothing  industry.    The  Government,  in  furnishing  measurements  for 

a  See  table  No.  3,  p.  21. 

*  Jesse  E.  Pope,  Clothlnr  Industry  In  New  York,  p.  9. 

c  The  Clothlngand  Furnkhing  Trade,  by  William  C.  Browning,  In  One  Hundred  Years  of  Amerioan 
Commerce,  Vol.  II,  p.  582.  -«»««-u 


^  h'? 


INTRODUCTION. 


11 


\.'^' 


( 


^ 


uniforms,  supplied  manufacturers  with  some  idea  of  human  propor- 
tions with  wnich  to  guide  themselves  in  making  clothing  for  civilian 
use. 

DEVELOPMENT   AFTER  THE   WAR. 

The  dose  of  the  war  in  1865  witnessed  the  first  important  develop- 
ment of  the  clottdng  trade.  The  requirements  of  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  soldiers  returning  to  civil  hfe  and  the  general  need  in  the 
South  caused  the  factories  that  had  been  established  for  making 
uniforms  to  turn  to  ready-made  clothing.  In  spite  of  an  increased  \ 
number  of  factories  and  of  improvements  in  the  sewing  machine  that  ) 
decreased  the  time  necessary  for  making  a  garment,  manufacturers 
were  unable  for  a  long  time  to  supply  the  great  demand.  ^ 

For  the  same  grade  of  work  that  prior  to  the  war  had  averaged  only 
$8  to  $10  per  week  for  a  man  and  his  wife  (in  this  wage  being  included 

Eayment  for  the  use  of  the  machine,  fuel  for  heating  the  irons,  thread, 
uttons,  and  hght)  wages  averaged  $20  to  $25  a  week  during  the 
period  of  stimmated  manufacturing  that  followed  the  war.**  The 
man  who  used  his  own  machine  at  home  had  a  better  opportunity  of 
securing  work  than  the  tailor  who  worked  on  a  machine  rented  from 
or  belonging  to  the  manufacturer.  In  the  manufacturer's  shop  such 
as  they  were  at  this  period,  the  worker  paid  for  thread,  sundries,  fuel 
for  heating  the  irons,  etc.  ^ 

The  seventies  and  eighties  were  the  days  of  thepioneers.  Rail-\ 
road  construction  and  extension  opened  up  the  West  and  South- 
west. Thousands  of  new  communities  grew  up.  Immigration,  ever 
increasing,  began  to  move  westward  from  the  ports  of  entry.  The  [  J^ 
demandior  ready-made  clothing  grew  by  leaps  and  boimds  to  sup- 
ply the  demands  of  the  vast  numbers  of  new  Americans  and  tne 
nome  seekers.  Chicago,  because  of  the  opening  up  and  rapid  growth 
of  the  West,  became  an  important  clothmg  center  in  the  seventies. 
It  was  not  only  the  important  railroad  center  for  the  vast  territory 
that  was  being  settled,  but  was  located  in  a  rich  and  well  populated 
region  where  there  was  need  of  ready-made  clothing.  The  retail 
establishments  that  supphed  this  demand  required  long  terms,  which 
included  extra  dating  and  a  credit  of  four  months.  A  man  who  paid 
his  bills  60  days  from  date  was  regarded  as  a  discounter.  Manufac- 
turers required  large  capital  to  carry  along  their  customers,  so  that  J 
big  clothing  houses  were  the  rule.  \J 

Clothing  was  manufactured  for  stock,  chiefly  of  a  medium  grad^-.   \^ 
The  manufacture  of  stock  was  not  hazardous  in  this  period,  as' the     \ 
great  majority  of  customers  purchased  clothing  in  quantities,  without 
regard  for  style,  workmanship,  or  fabric.     Blanket  orders  were  fre-      I     . 
quent.     Slow-selling  stock  did   not  remain  on  the  manufacturer's     /   '^ 
hands  as  it  does  now.    The  profits  of  the  business  were  large.     In     ' 
each  of  the  large  centers  there  were  a  number  of  manufacturers  whose 
annual  sales  amounted  to  $500,000  to  $1,000,000.     A  very  few  had 
sales  up  to  $2,000,000  or  $2,500,000  a  year.  ^.--^ 

The  supplying  of  this  great  demand  for  ready-made  clothing  was 
made  possiL  •  by  the  introduction  of  many  labor-saving  devices  and 
by  the  type  of  worker  that  was  coming  into  the  trade.  Up  to  1870 
all  cutting  was  done  by  shears.  Between  1870  and  1875  manu- 
facturerabegan  using  the  long  knife,  worked  up  and  down  by  hand 

o  Report  of  the  Committee  of  the  Senate  on  Eduofktion  and  Labor,  1885,  Vol.  I,  pp.  414,  743. 


12 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   ^LOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


( 


through  slots  in  the  table  and  capable  of  cutting  18  thicknesses  of 
cloth.  The  cutting  machine  introduced  later  consisted  of  a  rapidly 
revolving  circular  disk  blade,  capable  of  cutting  24  layers  of  cloth. 
This  machine  was  crude  and  dangerous,  however,  and  not  much  in 
favor.     Sewing  machines  were  still  run  by  foot  power. 

In  the  early  seventies  the  German  and  Austro-Himgarian  Jews 
entered  the  clothing  industry.  Up  to  this  time  the  sewing-machine 
operators  were  women,  and  a  large  number  of  machines  contmued 
to  be  nm  by  women  for  many  years;  but  many  of  these  German  and 
Austro-Hungarian  men  began  working  as  sewmg-machine  operators 
exclusively,  and  they  have  gradually  supplanted  the  women  to  a  very- 
large  extent. 

p  From  the  year  1880  mav  be  said  to  date  the  rapid  development  of 
the  clothmg  industry.  The  small  cities  and  towns  of  the  West  and 
Southwest  were  firmly  established,  immigration  crowded  the  ports 
and  the  population  rapidly  increased.  With  the  development  of 
Y  other  industries,  clerks,  teachers,  small  merchants,  and  other  classes 
who  wished  to  dress  well,  but  were  not  able  to  patronize  the  cus- 
tom tailor,  turned  to  ready-made  clothes.  The  general  demand  of 
the  people,  whatever  their  occupation  or  station,  to  be  weD  dressed 
greatly  stimulated  the  clothing  trade.  ' 

EFFECT   OF   IMMIGRATION. 

The  history  of  the  clothing  trade  is  bound  up  in  immigration  and 
it  is  necessary  to  understand  the  racial  factors  in  a  study  of  the 
industry. 

Up  to  and  through  the  early  eighties  the  Irish  and  the  German? 
constituted  the  chief  labor  supply  for  the  industry,  but  with  the  coming 
of  large  numbers  of  Russian  Jews  after  1882,  the  importance  of  the 
Irish  and  Germans  dedined.  The  Russian  Jews  generally  settled  in 
New  York  City,  though  they  later  migrated  to  Baltimore,  dhicago,  and 
Philadelphia.  They  introduced  the  outside  shop  and  the  task  system 
in  New  York.  With  the  coming  of  this  large  Russian  Jewish  immi- 
gration began  the  decUne  of  Boston,  which  had  been  up  to  this  time 
the  chief  wholesale  clothing  center,  and  New  York  assumed  the  lead- 
ership. These  Russian  immigrants  huddled  together,  the  family 
keeping  many  boarders  and  lodgers,  usuaUy  relatives  or  friends  from 
their  home  towns  or  the  unmarried  sons  and  daughters  of  such 
friends  and  relatives.  The  lodgers  usually  entered  tne  trade  of  the 
head  of  the  house,  and  as  the  space  afforded  by  the  hving  rooms 
became  too  small  for  the  work,  the  head  of  the  house  rented  rooms 
elsewhere,  thus  creating  the  small  shop  apart  from  the  home. 

INTRODUCTION   OP  TASK  SYSTEM. 

In  the  task  system  that  the  Russian  Jewish  contractor  introduced, 
there  was  a  'Heam"  of  three;  one  did  the  machine  sewing  or  oper- 
ating, another  the  basting,  and  another  the  finishing.  Originally  the 
operator  and  the  baster  were  men  and  the  finisher  a  woman,  but  later 
the  entire  team  was  made  up  of  men.  Though  wages  were  nominally 
week  wages,  the  pay  was  on  a  piece-rate  basis,  since  the  week's  wage 
was  paid  not  for  labor  expended  during  one  week  but  for  the  compfe- 
tion  of  a  certain  number  of  coats.    A  man  who  worked  a  week  and 


ti'W  • 


INTKODUCTION. 


13 


.%,-*' 


^ 


produced  only  two-thirds  of  the  weekly  task  would  be  paid  only  two- 
thirds  of  the  weekly  wage.  Since  the  task  was  a  team  task,  the 
quickest  of  the  team  was  constantly  speeding  up  his  team  mates  to 
keep  pace  with  him.  As  the  system  became  estabhshed,  the  tendency 
was  more  and  more  to  lower  wages  by  increasing  the  task  required  in 
return  for  the  week's  wage. 

Long  hours  and  driving  went  with  increasing  the  task.  The  con- 
tractor took  advantage  of  the  pecuhar  characteristic  of  the  Jewish 
workOT,  who  was  content  to  work  all  hours  of  the  day  and  night,  pro- 
vided his  weekly  wages  were  larger.  The  fact  that  the  task  worker 
earned  more  weekly  than  other  workers  under  other  systems  does 
not  take  into  account  the  number  of  hours  worked  by  each.  The 
task  worker  earned  more  per  week,  but  at  the  expense  of  sleepless 
nights,  early  morning  toil,  and  overexertion,  which  resulted,  in  most 
instances,  in  making  physical  wrecks  of  once  robust  immigrants.  In 
this  system,  which  was  employed  among  Jewish  workers  only,  the 
operator  did  all  the  machine  sewing;  the  baster,  who  was  the  tailor  of 
the  team,  put  the  garment  together  and  did  the  incidental  pressing, 
while  the  finisher  did  the  less  important  basting  and  handwork.  The 
contractor,  who  was  usually  more  skilled,  did  the  trimming  and  fitting 
and  the  off  pressing.  The  buttonholes  at  this  time  were  made  in 
special  buttonhole  shops ;  at  a  much  later  date,  when  the  size  of  the 
snops  warranted  it,  tne  buttonhole  maker  installed  a  machine  in 
each  shop  for  which  he  worked. 

During  this  period  the  task  system  was  employed  on  the  "closed** 
or  **bfidloon"  made  coat.  Until  the  early  nineties  most  of  the  coats 
made  in  New  York  were  made  up  by  tms  system.  It  was  not  em- 
ployed, however,  in  manufacturing  trousers  or  vests.  There  is  some 
question  whether  the  task  system  ever  got  a  foothold  outside  of  New 
York,  but  it  is  probable  that  as  the  New  York  task  worker  drifted  to 
other  centers  he  took  the  system  with  him. 

The  Bohemian  immigrants  came  at  about  the  same  time  as  the 
Jewish.  They  located  in  Chicago  and  Baltimore,  where  the  few  men 
who  entered  the  tailoring  trade  established  family  shops.  As  the 
necessity  arose  girls  were  taken  in  to  do  the  machine  and  the  less 
important  hand  work.  The  Poles,  Hke  the  Bohemians  but  unhke  the 
Jews,  permitted  their  women  to  enter  the  trade,  and  the  men  engaged 
in  it  only  in  limited  numbers.  The  Polish  immigrants  came  in  the 
late  eighties  and  generally  settled  in  Chicago.  The  Lithuanians, 
like  the  Poles,  came  in  the  late  eighties  and  entered  the  industry 
in  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore.  Th&  Germans  were  at  this  time  and 
have  continued  to  be  the  chief  source  of  labor  supply  in  Rochester. 

INSANITARY   SHOP  CONDITIONS. 

The  period  after  1880  is  marked  by  the  greatly  improved  Quality  of 
the  product,  by  factory  or  shop  work  superseding  home  work,  by  the 
introduction  of  steam  and  of  gas,  by  the  use  of  electric-power  machines 
in  the  place  of  the  old  foot-power  machine,  by  the  growth  of  the  con- 
tract system,  sweatshops,  and  home  finishing,  and  by  the  discontin- 
uation of  giving  out  work  in  the  rural  districts  to  be  made  by  the 
wives  and  daughters  of  the  farmers.  /^ 

Though  the  tenement  house  appeared  in  New  York  in  the  sixties, 
overcrowding  and  sanitary  conditions  were  probably  at  their  worst 


-r 


\ 


P 


14 


in 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


the  eighties.  The  workers,  all  immiCTants,  lived  and  worked 
together  in  large  numbers,  in  a  few  smafl,  foul,  ill-smelUng  rooms, 
without  ventilation,  water,  or  near-by  toilets.  They  slept  on  the 
unswept  floors  httered  with  the  work,  the  work  table  serving  as  the 
dining  table  as  well.  The  following  is  a  description  of  the  shop  and 
the  conditions  of  labor  usual  at  that  period: 

The  workshops  occupied  by  these  contracting  manufacturers  of  clothing,  or  "sweat- 
ers, as  they  are  commonly  called,  are  foul  in  the  extreme.  Noxious  gases  emanate 
from  all  comers.  The  buildings  are  ill  smelling  from  cellar  to  garret.  The  water- 
closets  are  used  alike  by  males  and  females,  and  usually  stand  in  the  room  where  the 
work  is  done.  The  people  are  huddled  together  too  closely  for  comfort,  even  if  all 
other  conditions  were  excellent.  And  when  this  state  of  affairs  is  taken  into  consid- 
eraUon,  with  the  painfully  long  hours  of  toil  which  the  poverty-stricken  victims  of 
the  contractors  must  endure,  it  seems  wonderful  that  there  exists  a  human  being 
that  could  stand  it  for  a  month  and  live.  We  are  not  describing  one  or  two  places 
lor  there  is  hardly  an  exception  in  this  class  of  manufactories  in  all  New  York.o       ' 

Children  have  never  been  employed  to  a  great  extent  in  this 
industry,  as  their  usefulness  is  limited  to  a  very  few  operations,  like 
puUing  out  bastings.  Their  chief  employment  then  as  now  appears 
to  have  been  acting  as  carriers  of  goods  from  the  shop  to  the  home 
and  vice  versa. 

The  buttonhole  machine  was  introduced  in  the  early  eighties,  but  the 
great  mechanical  advance  at  this  time  was  rather  the  improvement  of 
machines  already  on  the  market  than  the  introduction  of  new  ones. 

As  the  home  became  too  small  for  the  number  of  people  employed, 
the  head  of  the  family  rented  rooms  in  a  tenement  to  be  utifized  as 
workrooms,  or  in  some  instances  built  small  shops  in  the  yards  of  the 
dwelling  houses,  as  was  usually  the  case  with  the  Germans.  The 
Jew  in  New  York  usuall}r  set  apart  one  of  his  hving  rooms  for  a  shop, 
and  here  we  find  the  beginning  of  the  sweatshop.  The  rented  shops,' 
apart  from  the  dweUin^,  were  unsuited  for  manufacturing.  Tlie 
large  numbere  of  friendless-  immigrants  whose  only  acquaintance 
might  be  their  fellow  countryman  who  was  a  tailor,  gave  such  an 
energetic  tailor  the  opportunity  to  become  a  contractor. 

The  number  of  people  employed  in  the  average  coat  shop  in  this 
period  was  about  20,  and  in  the  pants  and  vest  shops,  much  less. 

Tlie  end  of  the  eighties  and  the  early  nineties  witnessed  the  great 
Italian  immigration.  The  Itahans  settled  especially  in  New  York, 
women  first  entering  the  industry.  Italian  women  came  into  the 
trade  in  such  large  numbers  that  they,  at  present,  do  practic^y  all 
the  finishing  in  most  centers,  and,  numencaUy,  hold  first  place  in 
New  York  and  Philadelphia  among  all  women  employees.  The 
Italian  men  entered  the  trade  after  the  women  and  to-day  are  to  be 
found  in  large  numbers  in  most  of  the  clothing  centers.  Tlie  Italians 
were  as  industrious  as  the  Jews,  fived  even  more  s^uahdly  and  in  more 
wretched  quarters,  were  easily  contented,  and  being  satisfied  to  work 
for  prices  that  even  the  Jewish  worker  considered  too  meagre,  gradu- 
ally supplanted  the  Jews,  forcing  them  to  become  contractors,  enter 
business,  or  seek  other  centers. 


•  tt"^^ 


•  Second  Axmoal  Report  ol  the  Factory  Inspectors  ol  New  York  for  the  year  endioc  Dec  1, 1887,  p.  2QL 


.*i)  A 


+ 


INTEODUCTION. 


mTRODUCTION  OF   SUBDIVISION  OP  LABOR. 


15 


The  Tenement  House  Act  of  1892  in  New  York,  which  prohibited 
contractors  from  manufacturing  in  their  homes,  and  legislation  in 
other  places  were  the  principal  factors  resulting  in  the  estabUshment 
of  larger  shops.  Contractors  rented  shops  and  lofts  built  for  manu- 
facturing purposes,  installed  many  machines,  and  entered  into  the 
making  of  clothes  on  a  large  scale.  As  the  contractor's  shop  grew 
in  size,  the  contractor  looked  about  for  means  of  lowering  his  labor 
cost.  To  utiUze  the  labor  of  women  and  girls,  which  could  be  purchased 
cheaper,  contractors  introduced  in  New  York,  about  1895,  a  system 
of  work  that  had  been  introduced  in  Boston  by  EngUsh  tailors.  This 
system  employed  a  greater  subdivision  than  any  system  previously 
mentioned ;  it  did  away  with  the  need  of  the  highly  skilled  tailor, 
as  each  person  performed  just  one  task  that  was  simple  to  learn. 
^This  system  was  employed  chiefly  on  coats  of  the  better  grade,  made 
on  what  is  known  as  the  **open"  method.  Since  the  introduction 
of  this  system,  the  subdivision  of  labor  has  constantly  increased, 
until  some  factories  now  have  as  many  as  150  operations  in  the  mak- 
ing of  a  coat. 

This  tendency  to  increase  the  number  of  operations  has  been  de- 
veloped with  the  idea  of  so  subdividing  the  work  that  each  operation 
can  fee  taught  easily  and  quickly,  and  tne  skilled  tailor  and  high  labor 
costs  will  Be  done  away  with.  Only  a  minute  subdivision  of  labor 
enabled  the  clothing  manufacturer  to  utilize  the  hordes  of  unskilled 
workers  that  swarmed  to  this  country  after  1880. 

IMMIGRATION  OF  TAILORS. 

The  following  tables  show  the  number  of  immigrant  tailors  admit- 
ted annually  from  1875  to  1914,  and  the  percentage  from  each  coun- 
try or  of  each  race.  The  classification  from  1875  to  1898  was  on  the 
basis  of  nationality.  The  year  1896  has  been  omitted,  as  there  was 
no  nationality  classification  that  year,  only  the  total  number  of  tail- 
ors admitted,  by  sex,  being  given.  In  1897  and  1898,  though  the 
classification  was  still  based  on  nationality,  Austria-Hungary  was 
subdivided  into  Hungary,  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  Galicia  and  Buko- 
wina,  and  other  Austria;  these  divisions  were  combined  to  corres- 
pond to  the  classification  Austria-Hungary,  given  from  1875  to  1895. 
Russia  (proper),  Poland,  and  Finland  were  combined  to  form  Russia- 
Poland,  ana  Norway  and  Sweden,  which  were  given  individually,  to 
form  Norway  and  Sweden.  In  1899  the  immigration  classification 
was  changed  from  nationahty  to  race  or  people;  therefore  the  figures 
from  1899  to  1914  are  not  comparable  with  those  of  previous  years. 
The  figures  for  1875  to  1898,  inclusive,  follow. 


/     / 


\  ) 


16 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


'^''xul^T^^^^^  iV"^  Percentage  of  TAiLORa  op  Different  Nationalitibs 
Admitted  to  the  United  States  During  the  Years  Ended  June  30.  1875  to 

[Data  for  1875  to  1880,  from  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Superinteadant  of  Immlijratlan  1892-  for  iMl  to  IMA 
from  the  Annual  fleports  of  the  Suoerlntencleat  of  ImnUgraticm;  for  1897aad  1898  froS  the  Smuai 
Reports  of  the  Commissioner  General  of  Immigration.]  '  *  Annual 


Years. 


1875. 
1876. 
1877. 
1878. 
1879. 
1880. 
1881. 
1882. 
1883. 
1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888. 
1889. 
1890. 
1891. 
1892. 
1893. 
1894. 
1895. 
1897. 
1898. 


Total. 
Percent 


Years. 


I 


1875. 
1876: 
1877. 
1878. 
1879. 
1880. 
1881. 
1882. 
1883. 
18»4. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888.. 
1889. 
1890.. 
1891. 
1892. 
1893. 
1894. 
189.5. 
1897. 
18W. 


Total. 
Per  cent  — 


Italy. 


44 

26 

16 

19 

45 

54 

156 

303 

207 

148 

117 

213 

219 

139 

160 

347 

462 

447 

459 

448 

329 

1,162 

860 


6,398 
9.3 


AuBtria- 
Hungary. 


140 

96 

47 

67 

86 

251 

298 

196 

216 

354 

185 

315 

509 

409 

338 

577 

681 

413 

543 

535 

432 

427 

679 


France. 


7,794 
11.4 


96 
47 
44 
20 
26 
26 
44 
38 
33 
38 
35 
10 
31 
48 
42 
51 
42 
47 
22 
13 
26 
16 
12 


Oer. 
many. 


818 
1.2 


407 

295 

215 

231 

296 

606 

1,374 

1.935 

1,797 

1,506 

855 

729 

070 

1,190 

952 

854 

1,172 

913 

820 

620 

331 

260 

209 


England. 


233 
128 
87 
08 
142 
262 
233 
254 
216 
228 
202 
201 
8S0 
300 
394 
287 
324 
227 
230 
158 
300 
77 
82 


Scot- 
land. 


28 
20 
14 
18 
23 
28 
M 
80 
58 
48 
41 
61 
85 
153 
154 
108 
56 
50 
61 
36 
52 
22 
6 


18,627 
27.2 


5.008 
7.3 


1.177 
L7 


Norway 

and 
Sweden. 


79 

71 

36 

50 

82 

203 

236 

206 

202 

122 

119 

177 

240 

238 

191 

143 

198 

206 

194 

125 

138 

102 

98 


Russiar 
Poland. 


3,458 
5.0 


74 

73 

50 

122 

83 

238 

208 

335 

131 

531 

410 

762 

1,086 

770 

1,240 

1,260 

2,651 

2,750 

1,225 

1,084 

937 

1,106 

1,589 


Switzer- 
land. 


18,742 
27.3 


17 
16 
11 
12 
37 
53 
103 
94 
99 
73 
34 
32 
37 
20 
47 
35 
13 
27 
16 
18 
7 
7 
8 


British 

North 

America. 


825 
1.2 


102 

66 

66 

09 

105 

132 

197 

110 

50 

67 

23 


Other 
countries. 


(«) 
(«) 

(«) 
(•) 

(«) 

(a) 


1,017 
1.5 


28 

63 

33 

43 

63 

67 

118 

118 

107 

01 

07 

105 

150 

132 

142 

141 

181 

164 

147 

134 

140 

85 

220 


2,578 
3.8 


Ireland. 


128 
68 

40 

41 

75 

125 

103 

120 

124 

121 

101 

68 

83 

87 

140 

81 

84 

70 

01 

104 

175 

61 

51 


2.145 
8.1 


Total. 


1,463 
060 
668 
815 
1,062 
2,134 
3,106 
3,748 
3,235 
8,317 
2,228 
2,682 
3,760 
3,405 
3,800 
3,879 
5,864 
5,334 
3,806 
3,184 
2,867 
3,325 
3,826 


68,587 
100.0 


t 


•  Immigrants  from  British  North  American  possessions  not  included. 

.  Up  to  1882,  of  the  three  races  that  were  to  play  important  rdles 
in  the  clothing  trade,  the  largest  number  of  tailors  came  from  Ger- 
many, those  from  Russia  and  Italy  being  comparatively  few.  Ger- 
many continued  its  leadership  for  a  few  years  after  1882,  but  the 
number  began  to  decrease  annually  from  1891.  The  Russian  hnmi- 
grants  appeared  in  large  numbers  in  1884,  and  this  large  immigration 


^ 


INTRODUCTION. 


17 


A 


> 


continued  down  to  1898.  The  Italian  immigration  appears  to  have 
started  in  large  numbers  in  1890,  and  generally  continued  to  increase, 
being  largest  in  1897. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  and  percentage  of  immigrant 
tailors  of  various  races  admitted  to  the  United  States  during  the 
years  ended  June  30,  1899  to  1914,  inclusive: 

Table  2. — Number  and  Percentage  op  Tailors  op  Dipperent  Races  Admitted 
TO  THE  United  States  During  the  Years  Ended  June  30,  1899  to  1914. 


[Data  from  the  Annual  Reports  of  tbe  Commissioner  General  of  Immigration.] 

Years. 

Bohe- 
mian and 
Moravian. 

English. 

German. 

Hebrew. 

Irish. 

Italian 
(north). 

1899 

70 
83 
106 
162 
227 
332 
273 
365 
371 
288 
165 
218 
244 
231 
.307 
229 

60 
64 
76 
51 
129 
175 
248 
175 
224 
225 
188 
303 
247 
213 
238 
235 

224 
270 
315 
484 
786 
808 
906 
940 
1,079 
821 
528 
707 
689 
658 
695 
770 

3,664 

7,031 

5,981 

6,110 

9,233 

16,426 

22,334 

18,418 

21,779 

14,882 

6,862 

12,552 

12,681 

12,154 

15,408 

19,793 

51 

69 

55 

74 

74 

124 

177 

113 

131 

136 

152 

128 

147 

113 

105 

92 

119 

1900    

180 

1901 

157 

19(12 

178 

1903 

206 

1904 

222 

1905 

239 

1906 

321 

1907 

310 

i9as 

188 

1909 

81 

1910 

118 

1911 

141 

1912 

172 

1913 

192 

1914 

231 

Total 

3,671 
1.2 

2,851 
0.9 

10,680 
3.6 

205,306 
68.3 

1,741 
0.6 

3,055 

Per  cent 

1.0 

Years. 

Italian 
(south). 

Lithua- 
nian. 

Polish. 

Russian. 

r 

Scandina- 
vian (Nor- 
wegians, 
Danes,  and 
Swedes). 

Other. 

Total. 

1899 

1,061 
1,322 
1,978 
1.934 
3,2.W 
3,302 
2.591 
3,998 
3.344 
1,912 
1,151 
2,146 
2,518 
2,490 
2,434 
2,676 

36 

74 

59. 

67 

69 

106 

178 

1.56 

314 

185 

97 

275 

198 

183 

227 

252 

163 
260 
226 
391 
481 
420 
589 
671 
884 
618 
248 
503 
500 
596 
885 
691 

45 

14 

11 

25 

127 

110 

137 

103 

187 

1% 

61 

149 

184 

238 

311 

353 

122 
133 
184 
227 
397 
412 
370 
300 
299 
177 
181 
285 
266 
178 
170 
169 

218 
399 
461 
666 

i,oa5 

1,113 
1.224 
1,422 
1,722 
1,107 
735 
1,317 
1,36.S 
1.610 
1.962 
!     1,912 

5,833 

1900 

9,899 

1901        

9,609 

19(V2 

10.369 

mx\ 

15,992 

1901 

23,  .580 

1905 

29,266 

1906 

26,982 

1907 

30,644 

1906 

20,735 

IWQ 

10,449 

1910 

18, 701 

1911 

19. 178 

1912 

18,836 

1913 

22,934 

1914 

27,403 

Total 

38, 115 
12.7 

2,476 
0.8 

8,126 
2.7 

2,251 
0.8 

3,870 
1.3 

18,266 
6.1 

300.410 

Per  cent 

100.0 

From  1899  to  1914  the  Hebrews  constituted  the  great  majority  of 
the  skilled  immigrant  tailors,  being  68.3  per  cent  of  all  the  immigrant 
tailors  admitted  to  this  country  during  that  period.  The  next  largest 
immigration  was  the  south  Itahans,  who  comprised  12.7  per  cent  of 
the  total  tailors  admitted.  Together,  the  Hebrews  and  south 
Italians  furnished  the  clothing  trade,  during  this  period,  with  81  per 
cent,  or  slightly  over  four-filths  of  all  the  tailors  admitted.  The 
German  tailors  m  this  period  comprised  only  3.6  per  cent  of  the  tottj 

11914'»— 16 2 


18 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE    CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


\ 


tailors  admitted,  a  very  considerable  decrease  from  their  position 
during  the  years  1875  to  1898.  The  Russian  and  Polish  immigration, 
which  appeared  so  large  in  the  10  or  12  years  preceding  1899,  droppea 
to  3.5  per  cent  in  this  period,  showing  probably  that  most  of  the  im- 
migration of  tailors  included  as  Russian  from  1875  to  1898  was 
classed  as  Hebrew  in  the  later  period. 

The  total  immigration  of  tailors  from  1875  to  1898,  exclusive  of 
1896,  was  68,587;  for  1896  the  number  was  4,021 ;«  and  from  1899  to 
1914,  300,410;  making  a  grand  total  of  373,018  tailors  admitted  to 
the  United  States  from  1875  to  1914,  inclusive. 

It  must  be  remembered  4)hat  during  the  early  years  of  this  immi- 
gration clothing  manufacturers  were  dependent  to  a  great  extent 
upon  this  skiDed  foreign  labor  supply.  With  the  introduction  of 
labor-saving  devices  and  a  more  complete  subdivision  of  labor  in 
which  there  were  few  operations  requinng  the  services  of  the  skilled 
tailor,  this  dependence  lessened  and  the  immigration  of  tailors 
became  a  minor  factor  in  the  trade.  Though  the  Hebrew  and  south 
Italian  immigration  of  tailors  is  the  largest,  it  does  not  show  the 
total  number  of  these  peoples  in  the  trade.  The  peoples  of  other 
races  did  not  usually  enter  the  clothing  trade  unless  they  had  been 
tailors  abroad,  but  vast  numbers  of  Jews  and  south  Italians  who 
had  no  previous  tailoring  experience  were  brought  into  the  industry 
when  new  machinery  was  introduced  and  a  greater  subdivision  of 
labor  made  possible  the  employment  of  inexperienced  help. 


INTRODUCTION  OF  THE   LARGE   INSIDE   SHOP. 


r 


From  about  1895  we  find  the  establishment  and  extension  of  the 
large  inside  shop,  with  its  better  light,  ventilation,  and  sanitary 
conditions,  and  the  introduction  of  factory  methods.  Legislation 
that  affected  all  clothing  centers  now  brought  the  industry  under 
State  supervision.  The  public  demanded  finer  goods  in  clothing  as 
well  as  m  other  wearing  apparel.  Manufacturers  began  to  start 
their  lines  at  higher  prices,  to  show  more  styles,  and  to  pay  more 
attention  to  the  question  of  style.  In  1907  the  production  of  suits 
retailing  at  $20  or  more  is  estimated  as  being  ten  times  as  great  as  it 
was  in  1897.  The  manufacturers  adopted  trade-marks  ana  began  to 
advertise  their  products  throughout  the  country.  This  practice 
made  the  large  inside  shop  necessary,  for  unless  the  advertismg  was 
backed  by  a  uniform  product,  which  could  not  result  from  the  em- 
ployment of  numerous  contractors,  the  money  expended  upon  such 
advertising  was  wasted.  To  satisfy  the  demand  for  better  clothing, 
better  workmanship  and  closer  supervision  than  could  be  secured 
X  from  the  contractor  were  necessary.  The  inside  shop  could  get  out 
goods  more  promptly  than  if  dependence  was  placed  upon  several 
contractors,  and  the  manufacturer  with  an  inside  shop  had  a  certainty 
of  production  not  possible  when  working  with  contractors.  Inside 
manufacturing  insured  that  the  linings,  canvas,  hair  cloth,  etc.,  would 
be  used  as  intended  and  lessened  the  risk  of  having  the  style  copied. 
The  inside  shop  greatly  improved  working  conditions  and  installed 
all  the  labor-savmg  special  machinery  ^at  was  constantly  being 
introduced  about  this  time.  These  machines — edge-pressing,  serg- 
ing,  collar  and  lapel  padding,  various  felling,  tacKing  and  ticket- 

o  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  General  of  Immieration.  1896. 


J- 


te  r^'^ 


P'^  A 


\ 


INTRODUCTION. 


sewing  machines — saved  time  and  did  away  with  much  hand  work. 
Generally,  the  contractor  was  not  financially  able  to  install  those 
machines.  The  big  inside  shop  also  installea  electric  power,  while 
some  of  the  smaller  outlying  shops  and  the  contractors  employed 
foot  or  gas  power,  as  steam  power,  which  was  originally  used,  was  not 
adaptable  to  small  shops.  The  manufacturers  who  established  in- 
side shops  were  probably  not  aware  that  they  were  adopting  the 
means,  if  efficiently  handled,  of  reducing  cost  and  competing  with 
their  former  contractors.  The  manufacturers,  however,  employed 
these  contractors  as  foremen,  superintendents,  etc.,  in  the  new  inside 
shops,  and  the  foreman  brought  with  him  ideas  and  methods  of  manu- 
facturing, which,  whUe  to  an  extent  successful  with  small  groups 
where  the  relationship  of  employer  and  employee  was  intimate  and 
racial,  could  not  but  woi^  disastrously  when  applied  to  a  large 
factory.  Often  foremen  were  hired  solely  for  their  ability  to  procure 
help-n-om  among  their  countrymen,  as  the  large  inside  house  had 
difiiculty  in  securing  sufficient  employees,  there  being  no  employment 
agencies  and  newspaper  advertising  having  proved  futile.  Some  of 
the  large  successful  houses  have  gotten  beyond  this  point,  but  even 
now  many  large  inside  houses  are  run  on  tne  plan  of  the  small  con- 
tract shop,  being  simply  a  number  of  small  stops  assembled  under 
one  roof. 

The  year  1907  was  the  high-water  mark  in  the  history  of  ready- 
made  clothing,  but  the  pamc  of  that  year  dealt  the  trade  a  severe 
blow.     Contrary  to  the  previous  history  of  the  clothing  trade,  this 
panic  did  not  increase  the  demand  for  ready-made  clothing,  and     j 
what  appears  to  be  most  surprising  is  that  the  manufacturers  selling    / 
the   high   grades   of   merchandise   suffered   least.     Probably    their  7 
increased  advertising  held   their  trade,  and  possibly  many  people 
accustomed  to  go  to  the  custom  tailor  for  fine  suits  turned  to  ready- 
made  clothing. 


TAILOR-TO-THE-TRADE   HOUSES. 


\ 


By  the  year  1907,  a  new  factor,  the  tailor- to-the-trade  house,  had 
arisen  in  the  clothing  trade,  which  was  destined  to  play  a  very  im- 
portant rdle.  These  houses  originally  suppUed  the  small  retailer 
with  specials  (out-of-proportion  suits)  or  special  styles  or  fabrics 
that  such  retailer  could  not  afford  to  carry  in  his  ready-made  stock. 
From  this  beginning  the  tailor-to-the-trade  house  grew  until  it 
rivaled  the  largest  of  the  ready-made  manufacturers.  With  its 
large  lines  of  styles  and  fabrics  it  drove  the  country  merchant 
tailor  out  of  business,  and  took  away  from  the  ready-made  whole- 
saler the  business  of  the  small  coimtry  retailer,  usually  a  general 
storekeeper.  This  was  especially  true  of  the  South,  where  the/ 
small  merchant  took  advantage  of  the  opportunity  not  to  carry  ai^y 
stock,  substituting  therefor  tne  style  and  swatch  book  of  the  tailor- 
to-the-trade  house. 

DECLINE  OF  THE  SEPABATE  TBOUSEBS  BUSINESS. 

The  last  15  years  has  seen  the  decline  and  almost  disappearance 
of  the  separate  trousers  business.  Years  ago  a  complete  suit  was  a 
rarity,  its  symmetry  and  pleasing  effect  on  the  eye  being  unappre- 
ciated. The  consumer  wno  still  had  his  prejudice  against  ready- 
made  cloihing,  and  there  were  many,  went  to  the  custom  tailor  for 


-h 


\ 


.r/S. 


tfMM 


X 


20 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industby. 


his  coat,  and  then  to  a  retailer  for  a  pair  of  ready-made  pants.  Dark 
coats  and  gray  striped  trousers  were  the  prevaihng  style,  hut  all  sorts 
of  incongruous  combinations  were  frequent.  The  ready-made  trous- 
ers business  in  this  period  was  enormous,  being  a  great  proportion  of 
the  whole  ready-made  clothing  trade.>.  As  the  large  houses  began  to 
advertise  and  preach  suits,  and  as  the  general  pubhc  began  to  sub- 
stitute entire  suits  for  separate  coat  and  pants,  the  pants  busmess 
dechned  rapidly.  Where  thousands  of  successful  wholesalers  once 
engaged  in  the  business,  we  find  to-day  a  very  few  houses  making 
separate  pants  and  these  usually  make  also  overcoats,  raincoats, 
Pahn  Beach  suits,  and  the  hke,  to  keep  up  their  sales.  The  number 
of  houses  making  pants  exclusively  is  very  hmited  and  such  few 
houses,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  do  a  small  business.  They  have 
been  aided,  however,  to  a  great  extent  by  the  present  demand  for 
separate  trousers  for  yachting,  tennis,  and  other  sports. 

DECLINE   OF  THE   JOBBING   BUSINESS. 

In  the  old  days,  when  terms  were  long,  manufacturers  needed 
some  customers  who  would  pay  their  bills  shortly  after  the  receipt 
of  the  goods.     That  was  the  day  of  the  jobber.     The  jobber  bought 
his  goods  cheaper  than  did  the  retailer,  or  he  received  a  larger  dis- 
count and  often  extra  long  dating,  which  meant  the  same  thing. 
This  was  due  to  the  fact  that  he  purchased  in  great  quantities,  usually 
when  the  manufacturer's  plant  was  dull,  and  paid  for  his  goods  on 
receipt  or  in  10  days.     Getting  his  goods  cheaper,  the  jobber  was 
enabled  to  resell  his  clothing  at  prices  that  competed  with  goods  sold 
by  the  manufacturer  to  the  retailer  direct,  though  often  the  iobber's 
price  was  much  higher.     The  jobber  usually  sold  to  the  merchants  in 
the  small  cities,  towns,  and  villages,  merchants  to  whom  manuf  acturcTS 
would  not  extend  credit.     His  salesmen  covered  places  that  the 
manufacturer's  salesmen  shunned.     His  headquarters  were  located 
usually  in  the  center  of  his  customers'  territory,  so  that  these  small 
merchants,  at  httlc  expense,  could  come  in  to  buy,  what  they  needed. 
Sometimes   the  jobber  had   large  stocks  on  hand   of  merchandise 
very  much  in  demand,  and  large  retailers  who  could  not  procure  the 
neotlcd  clothing  from  the   manufacturers,  purchased  it  from   him. 
Th(^  jobber,  selling  to  the  small  country  merchant,  who  depended 
upon  liis  customers'  crops  for  payment  of  goods  purchased  during 
the  season,  had  to  extend  very  long  terms,  so  that  the  jobber  neces- 
sarily had  to  have  a  very  large  capital.     He  was  a  banker  as  well  as 

a  merchant.  , 

With  the  rise  and  growth  of  the  tailor-to-the-trade  house  whose 
swatch  cards  and  style  books  were  to  be  foimd  in  the  stores  of  the 
smallest  merchants,  with  the  shutting  down  on  long  selling  terms  by 
manufacturers,  which  meant  that  they  would  not  have  to  carry  so 
many  accounts  along  from  year  to  year,  and  with  the  development 
of  a  highly  organized  selhng  organization  by  most  manufacturers, 
the  need  for  the  jobber,  who  in  earUer  times  had  really  performed  a 
community  service,  disappeared. 


\ 


introduction. 


THE   LAST   IMPORTANT   STRIKE. 


21 


The  last  strike  of  any  importance  in  the  clothing  trade  took  place 
from  December  30,  1912,  to  March  1,  1913.  Though  the  strike  was 
centered  principally  against  the  New  York  market,  it  took  place 
to  some  extent  in  rhiladelphia,  Boston,  Kochester,  and  Baltimore. 
In  Chicago  it  was  very  shght.  As  a  result  of  the  strike,  wages  were 
increased,  generally  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  and  there  was  a  reduction 
in  hours  of  work  from  56  to  52  and  53.  No  formal  written  agree- 
ment was  entered  into  with  the  Manufacturers'  Association;  the 
dififerences  were  adjusted  verbally.  The  wage  increase  in  New  York 
was  a  minimum  of  $1  per  week  for  each  employee,  the  amount  vary- 
ing in  the  different  shops. 

In  the  case  of  contractors,  in  New  York,  a  written  agreement  was 
entered  into  that  was  to  last  one  year.  The  principal  features  of 
this  agreement  were  the  recognition  of  the  union,  time-work  for 
coat  makers,  50  hours  to  comprise  a  week's  work,  and  the  installa- 
tion of  electric  power.  The  immediate  indirect  result  of  the  strike 
was  to  wipe  out  many  small  contractors  who  could  not,  with  50  hours 
as  the  basis  for  a  week's  pay,  work  for  their  former  small  wages,  which 
was  the  principal  reason  for  manufacturers  giving  them  the  work. 
These  small  contractors,  moreover,  did  not  have  the  money  to  install 
electric  power.  After  the  expiration  of  the  year  that  the  written  agree- 
ment was  to  run,  contractors  were  not  asked  to  renew  the  agreement, 
the  union  simply  sending  notices  to  the  contractors  that  tne  condi- 
tions stipulated  in  the  written  agreement  were  assumed  to  continue. 

Through  the  efforts  of  the  union  the  task  system  has  been  prac- 
tically aboUshed.  It  exists  nowhere  except  in  New  York,  and  here 
task  shops  are  few  and  small. 

GROWTH   OF   THE   INDUSTRY* 

The  statistics  regarding  estabhshments  engaged  in  the  production  of 
men's  clothing  pubUshed  bv  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  include  figures 
for  establishments  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  men's,  boy's,  and 
children's  clothing,  arid  such  outer  garments  as  overalls,  market 
frocks,  butcher  aprons,  uniforms,  bathing  suits,  knee  pants,  and 
gymnasium  and  sporting  clothing.  This  classification  also  includes 
estabhshments  engaged  in  contract  work  on  clothing  where  the 
materials,  or  the  greater  part  of  them,  are  furnished. 

The  following  table  is  taken  from  the  report  of  the  United  States 
Census  of  Manufactures  for  1909: 

Table  3. — Growth  of  the  Men's  Clothing  Industry  in  the  United  States, 

1849-1909.  ^ 

(Thirteenth  Census,  1909,  Manufactures,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  398.1 


Yean. 

Number  Of 
establish- 
ments. 

Wage 

earners 

(average 

number). 

Wages. 

Cost  Of 
materials. 

Value  of 
products. 

Value  added. 

.by 
manufacture. 

1849 

4,278 
4,014 
7,858 
6,166 
4,867 
5,729 
4,504 
5,584 

96,551 
114,800 
108,128 
160,813 
144,926 
120,927 
137,190 
191,183 

$15,032,340 
19,856,426 
30,746,579 
45,940,353 
51,075,837 
45,496,728 
57,225,506 
89,644,921 

125,730,258 
44,149,752 
86,794,706 
131.363,282 
128.846,857 
145,218,798 
185,793,436 
252,522,567 

$48,311,709 
80,830,555 
148,660,253 
!Z09,548,460 
•251,019,609 
276,717,357 
355,796,571 
485.677,493 

$22,581,451 

1859 

36,680,803 

1869 

61,865,547 

1879 

78,185,178 

1889 

122,172,752 

1899 

131,498,559 

1904 

170,003,135 

1909 

233,154,926 

22 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


The  next  two  paragraphs  accompany  the  table  in  the  census  report: 

Clothing^  men's. — The  value  of  producte  of  this  branch  of  the  clothing  industry 
represented  in  1909  nearly  one-half  of  the  total  value  of  products  for  all  the  clothing 
industries  combined. 

An  important  feature  of  this  industry  is  that  many  establishments  manufacture 
clothing  on  a  contract  basis  from  materials  furnished  by  others.  Many  of  these 
establishments  are  small  and  often  much  of  the  work  is  done  by  the  contractor  and  his 
family.  Other  establishments  working  under  contract,  however,  are  of  considerable 
size,  employing  large  numbers  of  wage  earners.  In  order  to  bring  out  the  extent 
to  which  this  practice  obtains,  a  segregation  has  been  made  of  those  establishments 
which  manufactured  clothing  from  their  own  materials  and  those  which  worked 
exclusively  on  materials  furnished  by  others — in  many  cases  by  establishments  of 
the  class  first  mentioned.  The  following  statement  shows  separate  data  for  these 
two  classes  of  establishments  in  1909: 

Table  4. — ^Men*8  Clothinq  Industry,  Regular  Factories  and  Contract  Shops, 

1909. 

[Tbirtdentb  Census,  1909,  Manufactures,  Vol.  VHI,  p.  308.1 


Classes. 

Numlier  of 
establish- 
ments. 

Wage 

earners 

(average 

number). 

Wages. 

CoPtof 
materials. 

Vahieof 
products. 

1 

Value  added 

bv 
manufacture. 

Regular  factories 

Contract  shops 

2,367 
3,217 

126,196 
64,987 

$56,360,952 
33,283,969 

$249,690,748 
2,831,819 

$439,860,259 
45,817,234 

$190,169,511 
42,985,415 

Total 

5,5S4 

191,183 

89,644,921 

252,522,567 

485,677,493 

233,154,926 

The  value  of  products  reported  for  contract  shops  consists  chiefly 
of  the  amount  received  for  work  performed  for  regular  factories, 
which  in  turn  report  the  value  of  their  finished  output,  enhanced  by 
the  work  done  on  contract.  The  former  value,  therefore,  in  the 
main  represents  duphcation.  The  wages  paid  by  contract  shops 
must,  however,  be  included,  to  obtain  the  entire  outlay  for  wages  m 
the  industry. 

On  analyzing  the  data  in  Table  3,  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
was  a  large  increase  of  production  in  every  decade  after  1849.  By 
comparison  of  the  statistics  for  1879  with  those  for  1909,  30  years 
later,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  production  increased  by  $276,129,033, 
or  131.77  per  cent;  the  cost  of  materials  increased  by  $121,159,285, 
or  92.23  per  cent;  the  wages  increased  by  $43,704,568,  or  95.13  per 
cent,  while  the  average  number  of  wage  earners  increased  by  30,370, 
or  only  18.89  per  cent.  The  average  earnings  of  the  workers  during 
1879  were  $285.68,  and  during  1909,  $468.90. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  there  was  an  enormous  increase  of  produc- 
tion between  1899  and  1909.  During  that  decade  the  value  of  the 
products  increased  by  $208,960,136,  or  75.51  per  cent.  This  per- 
centage of  increase  was  more  than  three  times  as  great  as  the  increase 
of  population.  The  population  of  the  United  States,  exclusive  of 
outlying  possessions,  was  75,994,575  in  1900,  and  91,972,266  in  1910, 
an  increase  of  15,977,691,  or  21  per  cent. 

The  average  production  per  estabhshment  was  $48,301  in  1899, 
$78,996  in  1904,  and  $86,977  in  1909,  showing  a  large  increase  in  the 
average  size  of  establishments. 

Table  5,  on  prges  24-25,  shows  the  number  of  establishments 
manufacturing  men's  clothing,  their  capital,  value  of  products,  and 
average  number  of  wage  earners  in  1904  and  1909,  by  States  and 
cities  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  value  of  their  products  in  1909. 


^    \ 


1 


INTKODUCTION. 


23 


From'  1904  to  1909  the  value  of  men's  clothing  produced  in  th3 
United  States  increased  by  $129,880,922,  or  36.50  per  cent.  The  piod- 
uct  in  New  York  State  in  1909,  $230,211,324,  was  47.40  per  cent  of 
the  product  in  the  United  States ;  the  product  in  Illmois,  $86,807,02 1 , 
was  17.87  per  cent.  The  percentages  of  increase  of  production  among 
the  States  that  increased  over  25  per  cent  during  the  five  years  from 
1904  to  1909  were  as  follows:  Alabama,  149.49;  Washington,  85.28; 
West  Virginia,  77.86;  Michigan,  59.70;  lUinois,  57.25 ;  Viminia,  55.29; 
Maryland,  49.28 ;  New  Hampshire,  49.04 ;  Kansas,  39.77 ;  Texas,  39.01 ; 
Wisconsin,  38.02 ;  Nebraska,  37.94 ;  New  York,  37.71 ;  Missouri,  33.00 ; 
Indiana,  27.43 ;  New  Jersey,  26.99 ;  Iowa,  25.36. 

The  production  in  New  York  Qty  in  1909,  $195,555,371, was40.26 
per  cent  of  the  production  in  the  United  States;  the  production  m 
Chicago,  $83,785,584,  was  17.25  per  cent.  The  percentages  of  in- 
crease of  production  among  the  cities  that  increased  over  25  per  cent 
during  the  five  years  from  1904  to  1909  were  as  follows:  Clevdand, 
88.88;  Chicago,  57.40;  Detroit,  56.94;  Baltimore,  49.43;  New  York, 
42.63 ;  Milwaukee,  31.07 ;  Rochester,  26.29. 

While  production  in  the  United  States  increased  by  36.50  per  cent, 
the  average  number  of  wage  earners  increased  by  53,993,  or  39.36 

per  cent.  ,  ,        i^  / 

Table  6,  on  pages  26-27,  gives  the  number  of  wage  earners  (men, 
women  and  children)  in  establishments  manufacturing  men  s  clothing 
in  the  United  States,  and  the  wages  paid  to  men,  women,  and  chd- 
dren,  in  1904  and  1909,  by  States  and  cities,  arranged  in  the  order 
of  the  value  of  their  products  in  1909. 

On  comparing  the  number  of  children  14  and  15  years  old  (2,963> 
with  the  total  average  number  of  workers  (137,190)  m  1904,  the 
percentage  is  found  to  be  0.22.  On  making  the  same  comparison 
for  1909  the  percentage  of  children  is  found  to  be  0.18. 

The  average  amount  of  earnings  was  $417.13  in  1904  and  $468.90 

in  1909 

SCOPE  AND  METHOD  OP  INVESTIGATION. 

This  investigation  of  the  cost  of  manufacturing  men's  ready- 
made  clothing  was  imdertaken  in  compUance  with  the  act  of  Con- 
gress approved  August  23,  1912,  which  created  the  Bureau  of 
Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  and  which  contamed  the  following 
section  providing  for  investigations  of  the  cost  of  production  of  arti- 
cles dutiable  in  me  United  States: 

Those  certaiQ  duties  of  the  Department  of  Labor,  or  Bureau  of  Labor,  contained 
in  section  seven  of  the  act  approved  June  thirteenth  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty- 
Sght  that  estabUshed  the  Sme,  which  especially  charged  it  'to  ascertain,  at  as 
eifflv'a  date  as  possible,  and  whenever  industrial  chaiiges  shall  make  it  essential, 
^  cost  of  producing  articles  at  the  time  dutiable  in  the  United  Stat^,  in  leading 
^untries  where  such  articles  are  produced,  by  fully  specified  units  of  production, 
Snd  under  a  classification  showing  the  different  elements  of  .cost,  or  approximate 
cost  of  such  articles  of  production,  including  the  wages  paid  in  such  industries  per 
dfl^  week  month,  or  year,  or  by  the  piece;  the  hours  employed  per  day;  and  the 
profits  of  manufacturers  and  producers  of  such  articles;  and  the  comparative  cost  of 

ivine  and  the  kind  of  Uving;  what  articles  are  controlled  by  trusts  or  other  com- 
binations of  capital,  business  operations,  or  labor,  and  what  effect  said  trusts  or 
other  combinations  oi  capital,  business  operations,  or  labor  have  on  prodvction  and 
prices  '^  are  hereby  transferred  to  and  shall  hereafter  be  discharged  'by  the  Bureau 
&  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  and  it  shall  als<.  be  the  duty  of  said  Bureau  cf 
Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  to  make  such  special  investigation  and  report  on  par- 

ticulS  subjects  when  required  to  do  so  by  the  Resident  or  either  House  of  Congress. 


24 


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INTRODUCTION. 


25 


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INTRODUCTION. 


27 


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28 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


The  investigation  was  begun  in  February,  1915,  and  the  field 
work  was  completed  within  four  months.  Special  agents  of  the 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  secured  reports  from 
64  establishments.  Of  these  estabhshments,  30  are  located  in  New 
York  City,  where  the  industry  is  largely  centered,  7  in  Rochester, 
7  in  Philadelphia,  6  in  Baltimore,  6  in  Cincinnati,  4  in  Chicago,  and 
4  in  Cleveland  and  Milwaukee.  Twelve  establishments  that  were 
requested  to  permit  an  examination  of  their  books  for  the  purpose 
of  ascerti^ining  the  cost  of  production  refused  to  do  so. 

The  total  net  sales  of  the  64  establishments  reporting  during  their 
last  business  vear  amounted  to  $66,947,954,  the  average  being 
$1,046,061.  The  net  sales  of  27  establishments  were  under  $500,- 
000;  of  14  establishments,  $500,000  and  under  $1,000,000;  of  14 
establishments,  $1,000,000  and  under  $2,000,000;  of  9  estabhsh- 
ments, $2,000,000  and  over. 

According  to  the  Census  of  Manufactures  the  value  of  men's 
clothing  produced  in  the  United  States  in  1909  was  $485,677,493." 
Of  this  amount  the  net  sales  of  the  64  establishments  that  reported 
for  this  investigation  were  13.78  per  cent.  The  census  figures, 
$485,677,493,  include  men's,  boys',  and  children's  clothing,  and  such 
outer  garments  as  overalls,  market  frocks,  butchers'  aprons,  uni- 
forms, bathing  suits,  knee  pants,  and  gymnasium  and  sporting  cloth- 
ing, and  also  the  value  of  products  of  contract  shops,  amounting  to 
$45,817,234.  The  64  establishments  reporting  in  tnis  investigation 
manufactured  only  men's  ready-made  clothing. 

The  object  of  the  investigation  was  to  ascertain  the  details  of  the 
cost  of  manufacturing  men  s  ready-made  clothing,  the  income  from 
sales  and  miscellaneous  sources,  and  the  profit  made  by  each  estab- 
lishment during  its  last  business  year.  The  following  forms,  called 
establishment  schedules,  were  prepared  for  the  entry  (3  such  data: 


Establishment  No. 


CONFTOENTIAL. 

Neither  the  name  nor  the  location  of  the  establishment  is  to  appear  on  this  schedule  or  in  connection  with 

any  figm-es  that  are  furnished. 


tmiTBD    STATES 

DEPARTMENT  OF    COMMERCE, 

BUREAU   OF  FOREIGN  AND  DOMESTIC    COMMBBOB, 

WASHINGTON. 


Clothing  Industry — Estabushment  Schedule. 

1.  Branch  of  clothing  industry 

2.  Kinds  of  garments  made  in  this  factory 

3.  Individual,  partnership,  limited  partnership,  or  corporation , 

4.  Report  for  business  year,  beginning ,  191 — ,  and  ending ,  191 — . 

a  Table  3,  shown  on  page  2L 


f //  <\  XlXs^ 


INTRODUCTION. 

(a)  material  cost. 
Materials  used  in  wearing  apparel. 


Per  cent 
imported. 


29 


Purchases  dur- 
ing year  at 
gross  billed 
cost. 


1.  Cloth. 


$. 


3 

4 

5 

6 

7.  Buttons,  thread,  sundries. 


8.  Gross  materials  purchased 

9.  Deduct  returns  and  allowances. 


10.  Actual  materials  purchased ... 

11.  Deduct  discount  taken  during  year. 


12.  Net  materials  purchased 

13.  Freight  and  cartage  inward,  with  proportionate  stable  or  garage 

expense 


14.  Cost  of  materials  purchased,  delivered 

15.  Add  inventory  of  materials  at  beginning  of  year. 


16.  Total 

17.  Deduct  inventory  of  materials  at  end  of  year $ . 

18.  Deduct  sales  of  materiab  at  net  cost  (enter  profit  on  same     . 

at  G-22;  loss  at  G-11) 

19.  Deduct  receipts  from  waste -     - 


20. 
21. 


Total  deductions 

Net  cost  of  materials  used 

(b)  direct  labor. 


1.  Wages  of  all  employees  in  manufacturing  occupations 

2.  Paid  to  contractors 

3.  Paid  to  home  workers  (by  establishment,  not  by  contract  shops). 


4. 


Total  direct  labor. 


(c)  indirect  labor. 


1.  Salaries  of  officials,  partners,  or  individual  owner,  chargeable  to 

manufacturing 

2.  Wages  of  factory  superintendent,  foremen,  and  forewomen 

3.  Wages  of  designers. 

4.  Wages  of  emjiloyees  in  sample  department 

5.  Wages  of  other  general  help— machinist,  clerks  in  factory  (not  gen- 

eral office),  packing  and  shipping  (not  show  room)  hands,  floor 
boys  and  girls,  etc.  (not  including  engineer  and  fireman  shown 
atD-4) 


6. 


Total  indirect  labor. 


(d)  factory  expense. 


1.  Rent  of  space  used  for  manufacturing  and  shipping  departments 

(not  including  items  at  D-4) 

2.  Repairs:  To  buildings  (not  including  additions),  |. 
to  machinery  and  fix 


total. 


ixtures  (not  including  replacements),  % . 


3.  Power,  heat  (or  fuel  and  wages  of  engineer  and  fireman),  light,  and 
water 


30 


men's  factoby-made  clothing  industry. 


4.  Fire  insurance  (this  year  only):  On  buildings,  I ;  on  ma- 

chinery, stock,  etc.,  I ;  total $. 

5.  Insurance — other  kinds  (this  year  only) 

6.  Workmen's  compensation  or  employers'  liability 

7.  Welfare  work,  | ;  charities,  $ ;  total 

8.  State,  county,  township,  and  municipal  taxes:  On  real  estate, 

$ ;  on  machinery,  stock,  etc.,  $ ;  total 

9.  Other  factory  expense  (specify  important  items,  entering  '  'Miscel- 

laneous expense  "  for  balance) . 

10 


11. 


1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 

11. 


Total  factory  expense . 


(b)  cost  op  administration. 

Salaries  of  officials,  partners,  or  individual  owner,  not  chargeable  to 
indirect  labor  or  cost  to  sell 

Salaries  of  general  office  force  and  auditor 

Rent  of  general  office 

Office  supplies,  stationery,  postage,  telegrams,  telephones 

Expense  of  collection  and  le^l  service 

Bad  debts  apportioned  to  this  year 

Corporation  (not  income)  tax:  United  States,  | ; 

State,  I ;  total 

Other  administrative  expense  (specify  important  items,  entering 
"Miscellaneous  expense  "  for  balance) 


X 


Total  cost  of  administration 

(f)  cost  to  sell. 


f 


1.  Salaries  of  officials,  partners,  or  individual  owner,  chargeable  to 

sales  department 

2.  Salaries,  commissions,  traveling  and  general  expense  of  salesmen . . . 

3.  Wages  of  other  employees  in  sales  department  (not  including  pack- 

ing and  shipping  help  shown  at  C-5) 

4.  Rent  of  showroom ; 

5.  Freight  and  express  charges  prepaid  and  cartage  outward,  with  pro- 

portionate stable  or  garage  expense 

6.  Advertising  (not  incluaing  advertising  for  help)  and  circularizing. . 

7.  Cases  and  x)ther  packing  material - 

8.  Other  selling  expense  (specify  important  items,  entering  "Miscel- 

laneous expense  "  for  balance) 

9 


10. 


Total  cost  to  sell. 


INTRODUCTION. 


(O)  PBOFIT  AND  LOSS   STATEMENT. 


81 


OxUgo. 


1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 

5. 
6. 

7. 
8. 

9. 
10. 


11. 


12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 

16. 


Material  cost  ( A-21) 

Direct  labor  (B-4) 

Ind  irect  labor  (C-6) 

Factory  expense  (D-11) 

Administrative  cost  (E-11).. . 

Selling  cost  (F-10) 

Garments  purchased 

Inventory,  exce|]t  materials 
(A-15),  beginning  of  year. 

Interest 

Depreciation:  Of  buildings 
owned,  | ;  of  ma- 
chinery and  fixtures, 
I ;  total 

Other  expense  items,  on  in- 
vestments outside  manu- 
facturing business  of  this 
establishment:  Specify. . . 


$. 


Total  outgo. 
Profit 


Total. 


Income, 


17. 

18. 

19. 
20. 

21. 
22. 


23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 

27. 


Gross  sales,  less  returns  and 

alowances $. 

Deduct  discounts  allowed .. . 


Net  sales 

Inventory,  except  materials 
(A-17),  end  of  year 

Income  from  bank  balances 
and  interest  on  bills  receiv- 
able, paid ,  or  accrued ..... 

Other  income  items,  from  in- 
vestments outside  manu- 
facturing business  of  this 
establishment:'  Specify. . 


Total  income. 
Loss 


Total, 


28. 


File  with  the  schedule  copies  of  profit  and  loss  statements  for  previous  years,  as  far 
back  as  possible.  If  unobtainable,  give  the  following  items  (provided  they  can 
be  obtained  from  the  books,  as  far  back  as  possible: 


Year  ending ,  19  — 

Year  ending ,  19  — 

Year  ending ,  19 — 

Year  ending ,  19  — 

Year  ending ,  19  — 

Year  ending ,  19  — 


.    Net  sales,  $ ;  profit,  | ;  loss,  |. 

.    Net  sales,    ;  profit,  ;  loss,  . 

Net  sales,    ;  profit,  ;  loss,  , 

Net  sales,    ;  profit,  ;  loss,  . 

.    Net  sales,    ;  profit,  ;  loss,  . 

.    Net  sales,    ;  profit,  ;  loss,  . 

(h)    BALANCE    SHEET. 


File  with  the  schedule  copies  of  the  balance  sheets,  showing  assets  and  liabilities, 
at  the  beginning  and  end  ol  the  last  business  year,  and  during  the  year,  if  any. 

Whenever  practicable,  file  with  the  schedule  copies  of  the  balance  sheets  for  pre- 
vious years,  as  far  back  as  possible. 

(l)   GENERAL  INQUIRIES. 

1.  Increase  of  capital  stock  during  year,  amount,  $ ;  date, ,  191. . . 

2.  Was  capital  stock  increased  by  stock  dividend  or  cash  sale? 

3.  Cost  of  new  machinery  purchased  during  year  (not  to  be  charged 

against  cost  of  manufacturing) $ 

4.  Cost  of  other  additions  and  betterments  during  year  (not  to  be 

chained  against  cost  of  manufacturing) $ 

5.  Usual  time  and  cash  discount  allowed  to  retailers, ;  to  jobbers, ; 

to  commission  houses  which  guarantee  accounts, ; 

which  do  not  guarantee  accounts, -  - 

6.  Per  cent  of  sales  during  year  to  domestic  retailers,  ;  to  domestic 

jobbers,    ;  to  domestic  commission  houses  which  guarantee  ac- 
counts,   ;  which  do  not  guarantee  accounts, 

7.  Per  cent  of  sales  during  year  exported, ;  amount  exported,  $ 

If  possible,  specify  amount  exported  to  each  country. 

8 

9 

10 


32 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 

(j)   NUMBER  OF  EMPLOYEES. 


INTRODUCTION. 


33 


1.  State  averse  number  enpap^ed  in  direct  labor  (B-1),  includinp:  helpers  not  on  pay 
roll,  and  in  indirect  labor  (C-2-3-^-5),  and  engineer  and  fireman  (D-4),  in  tho 
establishment  (not  contract  shops)  during  191    ,  by  months: 

January April July October 

February May August November 

March June September December 


2.  Classify,  as  follows,  such  employees  during  the  month  (busy  season)  of ,191  : 


16  years  of  age  and  over. 

Under  1«  yew^  of  age. 

Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Time. 

Piece. 

Time. 

Piece. 

Time. 

Piece. 

lime 

Piece 

'%.. 


3.  Oflficials  or  partners  actively  engaged  in  the  business:  Indirect  labor  (C-1), ; 

administration  (E-1),   ;  cost  to  sell  (F-1),   ;  total  (none  counted 

twice), 

4.  What  operations  in  making  or  trimming  garments  are  performed  by  contract? 

5.  Enter  under  "Remarks"  the  names  and  addresses  of  contractors,  stating  whether 

their  shops  are  inside  or  outside  the  establishment  and  whether  or  not  they  work 
for  this  establishment  exclusively. 

(k)  remarks. 


\ 


«* 


Forgoing  data  furnished, ,  191    ,  to  special  agent 


SPECIAL  inquiries. 


1.  Amount  of  returns  and  allowances  during  year S . 

2.  Estimated  loss  from  returns  and  allowances  during  year 

3.  Amount  of  cancellations  during  year 

4.  Estimated  loss  from  cancellations  during  year . 

5.  Percentage  of  suits  and  overcoats  sold  at — 

$8  and  under 

$8  to  $15 

$15  and  over 

6.  Method  and  frequency  of  inventories  of  raw  materials? 


7.  Method  and  frequency  of  inventories  of  finished  goods 


8.  System  of  apportioning  overhead;  (a)  Direct  labor  method? 

(b)    Prime  cost  method? (c)  If  other  method  is  used  give  as  much 

information  about  it  as  can  be  ascertained 

9.  Other  accounting  conditions  which  would  indicate  efficiency  or  the  lack  of  it 

in  the  management 


10.  Has  the  establishment  contractors  for  fabric  examining? ;  spongieg? ; 

making  coats? ;  making  trousers? ;  making  vests? 

11.  Estimated  total  number  of  employees  of  the  establishment  (shown  at  J-1)  and  of  its 

contractors  required  to  make  its  production  during  the  last  busy  season, 


12.  Number  of  seaming  machines  used  when  factory  is  in  full  operation? ;  per 

cent  bought  within  last  10  years? 

13.  Fabric  cut  by  shears,  electric  cutters,  band  saw,  or  long  knife? 


14.  Linings  cut  by  shears,  electric  cutters,  band  saw,  or  long  knife?  . . . 

15.  Trimmings  cut  by  shears,  electric  cutters,  band  saw,  or  long  knife? 


16.  Is  the  equipment  arranged  to  the  best  advantage? 


17.  Are  daylight  conditions  good,  fair,  or  poor? 

18.  Artificial  lighting — arcs,  indirect,  inverted  trough  shades,  or  separate  shades  for 

each  machine?  


19.  Other  factory  conditions  indicating  efficiency  or  the  lack  of  it  in  the  management? 


Agents  of  the  Bureau,  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  visited 
the  establishments  and  requested  permission  to  examine  the  books 
of  accounts  in  order  to  obtain  the  desired  details.  Assurance  was 
given  that  the  information  would  be  regarded  as  confidential  and 
would  not  be  used  in  such  a  way  that  the  establishment  could  be  iden- 
tified.    The  form  of  this  assurance  was  as  follows: 

Department  op  Commerce, 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce, 

WashxTkjgUm, 

Confidential. 

(One  copy  of  this  agreement  to  be  retained  by  the  manufacturer  and  one  copy  to  be 
forwarded  to  the  Chiet  of  the  Bureau.) 

The  information  which  has  been  given  to  Mr. ,  special  agent  of  the  Bureau  ot 

Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  is  furnished  with  the  understanding  that  the  name 
and  address  of  the  establishment  will  not  be  written  on  the  schedule;  that  the  infor- 
mation on  the  strhedule  will  be  considered  by  the  Bureau  and  its  special  agents  as 
absolutely  confidential;  that  it  will  not  be  divulged;  and  that  it  will  not  be  published 
in  such  a  way  that  the  identity  of  the  establishment  will  be  shown. 

This  information  which  appears  on  establishment  schedule  No.  has  been 

obtained  from  the  books  and  from  the  officers  of  the  establishment,  and,  to  the  best  of 
our  knowledge,  is  correct. 

^Special  agent's  signature^ 

(iKumufacturer's  signature)  — ' 

Date ,  191—. 

The  investigation  was  aided  by  the  hearty  cooperation  of  the 
National  Association  of  Clothiers.  Mr.  Harry  D.  Korm,  president  of 
the  association,  at  the  time  of  this  investigation,  sent  a  letter  to  every 
member  of  the  association  as  follows: 

National  Association  of  Clothiers, 

13  AsTOR  Place, 
'New  York,  February  18,  1915. 

An  investigation  concerning  the  manufacture  of  clothing  is  now  being  made  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  under  the  law  which 
authorizes  such  investigation,  with  regard  to  cost  of  production  of  dutiable  goods. 

Men's  clothing  is  now  being  investigated  and  special  agents  are  collecting  desired 
data,  to  obtain  the  condition  of  business,  various  items  of  expenditure,  and  net  sales 
of  each  concern. 

The  Government  furnishes  a  written  guarantee  that  information  furnished  will  be 
kept  strictly  confidential — only  percent^^s  and  ratios  will  be  published. 

The  data  collected  will  be  arranged  in  tables,  with  statements  of  manufacturers 
■  regarding  condition  of  business,  to  enable  Congress  to  decide  concerning  the  adequacy 
of  the  present  tariff. 


11914*>— 16- 


34 


men's 


FACTORY-MADE    CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


Schedules  giving  the  principal  items  of  cost  and  net  sales  will  be  used  and  a  list  of 
topics  will  be  offered  manufacturers  to  suggest  ideas  which  manufacturers  think 
should  be  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  Government  and  to  the  public. 

As  president  of  the  Clothiers'  Association,  I  would  thank  you  to  cooperate  with  the 
department,  which  gives  us  an  opportunity  to  express  views  regarding  the  tariff  and 
•^ther  conditions. 

Yours,  very  truly,  „  ^  ,^ 

(Signed)  Harry  D.  Kohn, 

President,  Clothiers  Association  oj  New  York. 

When  this  letter  was  sent  out  the  National  Association  of  Clothiers 
had  142  members,  of  whom  72  were  in  New  York  City. 

The  information  secured  during  the  investigation  was  obtained 
directly  from  the  manufacturers  and  from  their  books.  No  data 
regardmg  the  cost  of  production  were  accepted  that  the  agents  did 
not  find  recorded  on  the  books  of  the  establishments  reporting.  From 
data  entered  on  the  establishment  schedules  the  figures  were  derived 
which  show  the  various  items  of  the  cost  of  production  and  also  the 
percentages  of  profit  on  net  sales  and  on-the  capital  employed  in  the 

business.  .  •      v     j      -i 

The  further  object  of  the  investigation  was  to  ascertam  the  details 
of  the  cost  of  manufacturing  specified  styles  of  men's  ready-made 
clothing.  The  following  form,  called  a  imit  schedule,  was  prepared 
for  the  entry  of  such  data: 

Confidential. 

united  states  department  op  commerce, 

bureau  of  foreign  and  domestic  commercb, 

washington, 


Unit  Schedule — Men's  Clothing. 

Thp  data  shown  on  this  schedule  should  be  on  the  basis  of  prices  and  the  cost  of  materials  and  labor 
during  the  summer  and  fall  of  1914  for  spring  goods,  and  during  the  winter  and  sprmg  of  1914-15  for  winter 
goods. 

Unit :  One 

A  unit  schedule  should  be  used  for  each  unit,  which  may  l>e  one  or  more  either  two  or  three  piece 
suits,  one  w  more  overcoats,  or  one  or  more  separate  pairs  of  trousers. 


(A)  WHOLESALE  AND  RETAIL  PRICES. 

Price  to  jobbers. 

Price  to  retailers. 

Usual  original  re- 
tail price. 

Gross  price. 

Usual  per 
cent  dis- 
count. 

Net  price. 

Gross  price. 

l^sual  per 
cent  dis- 
count. 

Net  price. 

Style  A,  $ 

• 

1    

S 

t 

# - 

• 1 

Style  11,  ■• 

Style  C,  S 

Style  D,$ 

1 



btvie  t.,9 

Style  F,$ 

1 

«4 


A 


^ 


INTRODUCTION. 


(B)  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  COATS  OR  OVERCOATS. 


35 


Specifications. 


1.  Sack,  cutaway,  Norfolk,  dress,  or  over- 

coat   

2.  Single  or  double  breasted 

3.  Lined,  full,  half,  quarter,  or  skeleton. 

4.  Outside  pockets,  number  welted 

5.  Outside  pockets,  number  with  flaps.. 

6.  Outside  pockets,  number  patch 

7.  Outside  pockets,  number  bellows 

8.  Inside  pockets,  number 

9.  Sleeves,  plain ,  vent,  or  cuff 

10.  Sleeves,  basted  in  or  not - 

11.  Edees,    plain,    stitched     or    double- 

12.  Inside  seams,  piped,  plain,  or  turned  in 

13.  Bottom,  felled  or  stitched 

14.  Canvas,  made  by  hand  or  machine... 

15.  Collar,  padded  bv  hand  or  machine. . . . 
Ifi.  Buttonholes,  made  by  hand  or  machine 
17.  Method  of  making,  open  or  closed 


Style  A. 


Style  B. 


Style  C. 


Style  D. 


Style  E. 


Style  F. 


(C)  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  TROUSERS. 


Specifications. 


1   Pockets,  number  with  flaps 

2.  Pockets  (including  fob),  number  with- 

out flaps -. 

3.  Waistbjmd.  separate  or  grown  in 

4.  Tops,  stitched  or  felled 

5.  Loops,  plain,  tunnels  or  none 

Crotch,  whole  or  pieced 

Bottoms,  plain  or  cufi - 

Bottoms,  unished  or  basteJ  only 

Bottoms,  finished  by  hand  or  machine. 
Buttonholes,  made  by  hand  or  machine 
Top  buttons,  sewed  on  by  hand  or  ma- 
chine  v  V  -  -  -J 

12.  Fly  buttons,  sewed  on  by  hand  or  ma- 
chine  


6 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 


Style  A. 


Style  B. 


Style  C. 


Style  D. 


Style  E. 


Style  F. 


(D)  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  VESTS. 


Speciflcations. 


1.  Single  or  double  breasted 

2.  Collar,  with  or  none 

3   Back,  lined  or  skeleton 

4'  Outiide  pockets,  number  welted 

6.  Outside  pockets,  number  with  flaps 

fi.  Outside  pockets,  number  patch 

7.  Inside  pockets,  number v  : ;  • 

8.  Edgw,    plain,    stitched,    or    double 

sUtched V ---  • 

9.  Buttonholes,  made  by  hand  or  macnme. 


Style  A. 


Style  B. 


Style  C. 


Style  D. 


Style  E. 


Stvie  F. 


Secure  swatches  of  fabric  for  each  style. 


^w 


"^ 


36 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


(E)  MATERIALS   USED  IN  UNIT, 


A-    : 


Speciflcations. 

Style  A, 

style  B, 

Style  C. 

style  D. 

Style  E. 

Style  F. 

1    Vahrir  ^niitnr  rlnth^  commercial  name 

9    Pftlirip    nfir  ront  nf  wool .. 

^    TTftKrip    wfiifht  n«r  Yard                     

4     Fabric   width  l)efore  shrinking    

•»    Ffthric   vards  iLsed    before  shrulkinE... 

6    Fabric  Dricc  D©r  vard 

% 

t 

1 

1 

S 

t 

S 

t 

t 

t 

1 

7.  Fabric,  gross  cost  of  quantity  used 

8    Fabric   i  ^ondon  or  steam  shrunk ..... . 

$ 

Q    Rodv  linin?  commercial  name . ....... 

10    Rodv  lining  ner  cent  of  wool.......... 

11    Rodv  Irninc  width                      ......... 

12    Rodv  linine  vards  used 

13    Rodv  linine  orice  Der  vard 

S 

S 

$ 

» 

s 

$ 

S 

S 

t 

t 

t 

14,  Body  lining,  gross  costof  quantity  used. 

$ 

lit   RIaava  lining  commtf cial  name  .. 

ifi    RIaava  lininir  cotton  satin  or  silk.... 

17    Slpeve  linine  width 

Ifi    RIaava  lining   vard<!  iiSAd 

19   Sleeve  linine.  nrice  per  vard 

s 

% 

1 

1 

s 

s 

1 

t 

$ 

$ 

S 

20.  Sleeve  lining,  gross  cost  of  quantity 
US6d.. 

t 

-A 


(F)  COST   OF  MATERIALS  IN   UNIT. 


Items. 

Style  A. 

style  B. 

Style  C. 

style  D. 

Style  E. 

style  F. 

1.  Fabric,  usual  pw  cent  of  discoimt 
taken                           ............... 

2,  Fabric,  gross  cost  (E-7) 

3,  Fabric,  discount,  amount 

4    Fabric  net  cost. 

S 

1 

1 

S 

1 

$ 

S 

S 

t 

t 

S 

S 

S 

t 

s 

t 

S 

t 

5,  Body  lining,  usual  per  cent  of  discoimt 
tAKAn . 

6    Bodv  linine.  cross  cost  (E-14) 

S 

s 

s 

1 

s 

$ 

S 

S 

1 

< 

S 

t 

$ 

t 

1 

% 

7.  Body  lining,  discount,  amount 

8.  Body  lining,  net  cost 

t 

s 

9,  Sleeve  lining,  usual  per  cent  of  dis- 
count taken            .    ............... 

• 

10,  Sleeve  lining,  gross  cost  (E-20) 

11,  Sleeve  lining,  discount  amoimt 

191   Sleeve  lining,  net  ctnat 

s 

s 

t 

$ 

s 

s 

S 

$ 

$ 

S 

t 

f 

s 

1 

s 

t 

t 

1 

13.  Overcoat  collar,  if  silk  velvet,  net  cost. . 

s 

s 

% 

t 

t 

% 

14   Trimmines.  all  other,  net  cost 

» 

s 

% 

S 

t 

1 

15.  Freight,  if  included  in  ovn-head,  enter 
here:  deduct  at  H-5 

$. 

$ 

% 

S 

t 

t 

16.  Total  net  cost  of  materials 

$ 

% 

s 

1 

$.. ....... 

1 

17   Rovaltv  expense 

t 

s 

t 

S 

s 

t 

A 


INTRODUCTION. 


(O)  DIRECT  LABOR  COST  OF  UNIT. 


37 


Operations. 

Style  A. 

style  B. 

style  C. 

style  D, 

style  E, 

style  F. 

2   Fabric  Daid  contractor  for 

t 

t 

t 

t 

t 

S 

$ 

f 

t 

$ 

$ 

t 

$ 

S 

s 

s 

S 

s 

% 

f 

S 

8    Fabric  examining ,....t 

s 

4.  Fabric.  snonirJinj? .                

s 

6.  Fabric.  linings,    trimmings,  cutting 
and  trimming 

s 

6.  Total,  examining,  sponging,  cutting, 
and  trimming 

S 

$ 

s 

1 

$ 

s 

7.  Coat  or  overcoat,  paid  contractor 

8.  Coat  or  overcoat,  machine  operating. . . 

9.  Coat  or  overcoat.  Dressing 

$ 

S 

s 

$ 

$ 

s 

s 

s 

% 

1 

$ 

s 

% 

s 

$ 

s 

% 

$ 

$ 

s 

s 

$ 

s 

s 

s 

$ 

s 

s 

$ 

f 

$ 

$ 

$ 

1 

1 

$ 

$ 

$ 

10.  Coat  or  overcoat,  bastinc 

$ 

11.  Coat  or  overcoat,  home  finishing 

12.  Coat  or  overcoat,  othan  hand  work 

13.  Coat  or  overcoat,  other  direct  labor  — 

s 

s 

s 

14.  Coat  or  overcoat,  total  for  making .  v . . . 

% 

s 

$ 

$ 

s 

$ 

16.  Trousers,  paid  contractor 

$ 

$ 

< 

s 

$ 

9 

1 

$ 

1 

» 

s 

$ 

1 

s 

? 

s 

1 

$ 

s 

$ 

s 

» 

$ 

$ 

$ 

f 

s 

1 

s 

» 

$ 

$ 

$ 

% 

$ 

$ 

16   Trousers,  machine  oneratinz 

$ 

17   Trousers,  nressine 

$ 

18  Trousers,  bastine 

$ 

19.  Trousers,  home  inLshine I 

% 

20.  Trousers,  other  hand  work 

$ 

21.  Trousers,  other  direct  labor 

% 

22.  Trousws,  total  for  making 

s 

$ 

$ 

$ 

$ 

s 

23   Vast,  naid  contractor 

s 

$ 

s 

s 

f 

$ 

t 

s 

$ 

s 

s 

s 

s 

$ 

$ 

1 

$ 

1 

f 

s 

$ 

1 

$ 

f 

$ 

$ 

$ 

% 

$ 

1 

$ 

s 

s 

$ 

s 

s 

94   Vest,  machine  opflratfTip. 

s 

25.  Vest,  nressine 

$ 

26   Vest.  )astine 

$ 

27   Vest,  home  inishine 

% 

28  Vest,  other  hand  work 

$ 

29   Vest  other  direct  labor 

s 

20.  Vest,  total  for  makine 

s 

s 

$ 

$ 

s 

$ 

Q-2.    After  " for"  enter  examining  or  sponging  or  both, 

0-3  to  5  and  8  to  13.    Enter  only  cost  of  labor  for  which  contractor  was  not  paid. 

0-13.  Including  tailors,  shapers,  ticket  sewers,  basting  pullers,  cleaners,  garment  examiners,  and 
bushelers,  but  not  bushelers  for  retail  store  and  not  indirect  labor  shown  at  C  on  the  establishment  schedule, 

G-16  to  21  and  24  to  29.    Enter  onlv  costof  ial>or  for  which  contractor  was  not  paid. 

0-21  and  29,  Including  tailors,  shapers,  ticket  sewers,  basting  pullers,  cleaners,  garment  examiners, 
and  bushelers,  but  not  bushelers  for  retail  store  and  not  mdirect  mbor  shown  at  C  on  the  establishment 

(H)  TOTAL  NET  COST  OF  UNIT. 


Summary, 

Style  A, 

Style  B, 

Style  C, 

style  D. 

style  E. 

style  F. 

1   Materials  (F-16) 

$ 

1 

% 

t 

S 

1 

1 

t 

1 

t 

S 

s 

t 

t 

t 

$ 

S 

1 

$ 

s 

% 

1 

S 

s 

s 

S 

2.  Paid  contractors  (G-2,  7, 15,  and  23).... 

3.  Other  direct  labor  (G-6, 14,  22,  and  30 

less  G-2.  7. 15.  and  23) 

1 

$ 

4.  Rovaltv  expense  ( F-17) 

$ 

b.  Overhead  charges,  as  computed  by  es- 
tablishment,  not   including   freight 
i F-15)  or  royalty  (F-17) 

s 

6.  Total  net  cost ^ 

1 

1 

s 

$ 

s 

s 

38 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


r- 


Each  unit  was  one  suit,  overcoat,  or  separate  pair  of  trousers  of  a 
particular  style.  The  amount  paid  for  each  kind  of  material  used 
was  ascertained;  also  the  amount  paid  for  each  direct  lahor  opera- 
tion. These  items  the  manufacturers  could  easily  give.  What  the 
trade  commonly  calls  '*  overhead '^  was  found  by  computation, 
according  to  the  ''dual  method"  explained  on  page  223,  in  a  section 
of  this  report  headed  ''Simplified  Cost  Accounting." 

Many  manufacturers  were  interviewed  by  special  agents  of  the 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  in  regard  to  subjects 
relating  to  the  men^s  ready-made  clothing  industry  that  were  not 
included  in  either  the  establishment  schedule  or  the  unit  schedule, 
and  much  valuable  information  regarding  general  trade  conditions 
was  thus  obtained. 

The  statistics  regarding  wages  and  hours  of  labor  which  appear  in 
this  report  are  reproduced  from  a  bulletin  issued  by  the  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics <*  reporting  an  investigation  made  in  the  year  1913. 

A  contemplated  investigation  by  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Do- 
mestic Commerce  of  the  cost  of  production  of  men's  ready-made 
clothing  in  European  countries  was  prevented  by  the  European  war. 

•  Bulletin  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  whole  number  IGl. 


•*  A 


CI 


'^^ 


STJMMAB7. 

CAPITAL,  NET  SALES,  AND  TTTBNOVEB. 

The  64  establishments  for  which  data  were  obtained  reported  capital 
employed  in  business  amounting  to  $32,850,950,  or  an  average  of 
$513,296  per  establishment. 

In  tabulating  the  data  the  establishments  were  divided  into  18 
groups,  according  to  method  of  manufacture,  usual  factory  price  of 
product,  location,  and  amount  of  net  sales.     These  18  groups  are  as 

follows: 

Group  I.  Twelve  establishments  having  no  operating  contracted. 

Group  II.  Thirty  establishments  havmg  part  of  operating  con- 
tracted. 

Group  III.  Twenty-two  establishments  having  all  operating  con- 
tracted. 

Of  these,  12  establishments  which  had  no  operating  contracted,  re- 
ported capital  employed  in  business  amounting  to  $5,040,853,  or  an 
average  of  $420,071  per  establishment.  Thirty  establishments,  which 
had  part  of  operating  contracted,  reported  $20,515,075,  or  $683,836 
per  establishment.  Twenty-two  establishments,  which  had  all  oper- 
ating contracted,  reported  $7,295,022,  or  an  average  of  $331,592. 

The  establishments  are  further  divided  into  groups  according  to  the 
prices  at  which  the  principal  part  of  their  product  is  sold.  Group  IV 
mcludes  8  establishments  manufacturing  suits  and  overcoats  with 
a  factory  price  under  $8;  Group  V,  37  establishments  manufacturing 
suits  and  overcoats  with  a  factory  price  of  at  least  $8  but  under  $15; 
Group  VI,  11  establishments  manufacturing  suits  and  overcoats  with 
a  factory  price  of  $15  and  over,  and  Group  VII,  8  establishments  manu- 
facturing separate  trousers,  etc. 

The  establishments  are  also  grouped  according  to  locality.  Group 
VIII  includes  4  establishments  in  Chicago;  Groiip  IX,  7  establishments 
in  Philadelphia;  Group  X,  4  establishments  in  Cleveland  and  Milwau- 
kee; Group  XI,  7  establishments  in  Rochester;  Group  XII,  6  establish- 
ments in  Baltimore;  Group  XIII,  30  establishments  m  New  York  City, 
and  Group  XIV,  6  establishments  in  Cincinnati. 

The  last  4  groups  are  divided  according  to  the  amount  of  net 
sales.  Group  XV  includes  27  establishments  with  net  sales  under 
$500,000;  Group  XVI,  14  establishments  with  net  sales  of  $500,000 
and  under  $1,000,000;  Group  XVII,  14  estabUshments  with  net  sales 
of  $1,000,000  and  under  $2,000,000;  Group  XVIII,  9  establishments 
with  net  sales  of  $2,000,000  or  over. 

The  average  percentages  of  manufacturing  profit  and  final  profit 
of  all  the  64  establishments  reporting  were  as  follows:  Per  cent  of 
manufacturing  profit  on  capital  employed  in  business,  11.14;  on  net 
sales,  5.46;  per  cent  of  final  profit  on  capital  employed  in  business, 

39 


/ 


/ 


40 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


A   - 


V 


10.47;  on  net  sales,  5.14.  Of  the  total  number  of  establishments  re- 
porting, 6  had  manufacturing  losses  and  7  had  final  losses;  36  earned 
10  per  cent  or  more  of  manufacturing  profit,  and  34  earned  10  per 
cent  or  more  of  fin^  profit  on  capital  employed  in  business. 

The  percentage  of  manuf acturmg  profit  on  the  investment  and  on 
the  net  sales  is  shown  by  groups  in  tte  following  table: 

Tablb  7.— Percentage  of  Manufacturing  Profit,  by  Groups  and  Combina- 
tions OF  Groups  of  Establishments. 


Establishments. 


suits  and  overcoats  with 


All  establishments  reporting. . . . 

Establishments  liaving— 

No  oparatlng  contracted 

Part  of  operating  contracted. 
All  operating  contracted. 

Establishments  manufacturing 
factory  price- 
Under  18 

$8  and  under  $15 

$15  and  over 

Establishments  manufacturing  separate  trousers, etc. 

Establishments  located  in— 


Groups. 


I 

11 

UI 


ielpbia 

Cleveland  and  Milwaukee 

Rochester 

Baltimore 

New  York  City 

Cincinnati 

Establishments  with  net  sales  of— 

Under  $500,000 

$500,000  and  under  $1,000,000. . 
$1,000,000  and  under  $2,000,000. 
$2,000,000  or  over 


VIII 

IX 

X 

XI 

XII 

XIII 

XIV 

XV 

XVI 

XVII 

XVIII 


Number  of 
establish- 
ments. 


64 

12 
30 
22 


IV 

8 

V 

37 

VI 

11 

7U 

8 

Manufacturing  profit 
on- 


Capital 
employed. 


4 

7 
4 

7 

6 

30 

6 

27 

14 

14 

9 


Per  cent. 
11.14 

12.56 

9.79 

13.94 


15.79 

12.65 

5.13 

9.30 


Net 

sales. 


Per  cent. 
5.46 

5.66 
5.22 
6.89 


6.07 
6.19 
2.81 
4.37 


13.45 

7.45 

14.22 

6.53 

9.21 

6.33 

10.03 

5.18 

9.07 

5.06 

12.50 

5.01 

7.33 

3. 43 

10.90 

4.74 

11.87 

4.11 

9.75 

4.67 

11.90 

0.7$ 

The  profit  on  capital  employed  in  business  was  in  all  instances 
very  much  larger  tnan  the  profit  on  net  sales,  in  most  cases  being 
'over  twice  as  large.  Establishments  with  net  sales  of  $2,000,000  or 
over  show  a  higher  percentage  of  manufacturing  profit  both  on  capi- 
tal employed  in  business  and  on  net  sales  than  do  establishments  with 
smaller  amounts  of  net  sales. 

For  the  64  establishments  concerning  which  information  was  se- 
cured there  was  a  turnover  of  more  than  twice  the  amount  of  capital 
employed  in  business. 

The  salaries  of  active  officers  and  the  drawing  accounts  of  partners 
were  included  in  the  cost  of  production  before  profits  \yere  figured. 
Likewise,  in  the  case  of  an  individual  owner  of  an  establishment,  the 
costs,  include  the  estimated  amount  he  would  have  to  pay  an  employee 
for  service  such  as  he  himself  performed.  Before  profits  were  figured, 
all  expenses  for  selling  were  included  in  the  cost  of  production. 
Furthermore,  depreciation  was  added  as  an  expense  before  final  profits 
and  losses  were  computed.  It  was  calculated  on  the  inventoried 
value  of  the  machinery  and  fixtures  at  the  uniform  rate  of  8  per  cent 
for  all  establishments.  While  many  estabUshments  kept  no  depreci- 
ation account  on  their  books  and  did  not  take  it  into  consideration  in 
figuring  profits  or  losses,  allowance  was  made  in  each  case  neverthe- 
less for  oepreciation. 


,  H 


A 


a 


j/ 


SUMMABY. 


COST  AND  PEOFTT,  BY  ESTABLISHMENTS. 


41 


The  data  furnished  by  the  64  establishments  that  reported  show 
that  their  average  net  sales  during  their  last  busmess  year  were 
$1,046,061;   average   manufacturing   profit,    $57,170;   average   final 

profit,  $53,762.  •  j  • 

The  manufacturing  profit,  based  on  net  sales,  shows  a  wide  varia- 
tion in  the  different  estabhshments.  Of  the  64  establishments  58 
show  a  manufacturing  profit  ranging  from  12.78  per  cent  to  0.04 
per  cent,  and  6  establishments  show  a  manufacturing  loss  rangmg 
from  0.27  per  cent  to  1.72  per  cent. 

Of  the  58  estabhshments  showmg  a  manuf  acturmg  profit  on  net 
sales  2  earned  more  than  10  per  cent;  31  more  than  5  but  less  than 
10  per  cent;  24  more  than  1  but  less  than  5  per  cent;  and  1  less  than 
1  per  cent.     Three  of  the  establishments  showing  losses  had  net  sales 

of  less  than  $500,000.  -  .        ,        .v,    .  ,  i 

Table  8  shows,  by  groups,  percentages  of  cost  based  on  the  total 
manufacturing  and  seUing  expense  of  the  establishments. 

Table  8  —Percentages  op  Average  Costs,  by  Specified  Items,  Based  on  the 
Total'  Manufacturing  and  Selling   Expense,   by  Groups   op   Establish- 

MENTd. 


Establishments. 


Groups 


Num- 
ber of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


Per  cent  of  total  manufacturing  and  selling  ex- 
pense. 


All  establishments  reporting  data 

Establishments  having— 

No  operating  contraoted 

Part  operating  contracted 

All  operating  contracted - . 

Establishments  with  factory  price  of- 

Under$8 

18  and  under  $15 

%Vt  and  over -  — 

Establishments    manufacturing 

separate  trousers,  etc 

Estahlishments  located  in— 

Chicago 

PhUadelphIa 

Cleveland  and  MUwaukee 

Rochester 

Baltimore 

New  York  City 

Cincinnati •' • 

Establishments  with  net  sales  of— 

Under  $500,000 

$500,000  and  under  II  ,000,000 

$1,000,000  and  under  12,000,000... 

$2,000,000  and  over 


I 
II 
lU 

IV 
V 
VI 

VII 

VIII 
IX 

x 

XI 

XII 
XIII 
XIV 

XV 
XVI 
XVII 
XVIII 


Raw 
mate- 
rial. 


64 

12 
30 
22 

8 
37 
11 

8 

4 

7 
4 

7 

6 

30 

6 

27 

14 

14 

0 


Direct 
latxH*. 


Indi- 
rect 
labor. 


S2.39 

50.89 
50.91 
56.75 

58.73 
■    52.88 
46.68 

55.87 

47.37 
54.15 
53.48 
51.24 
51.89 
54.50 
52.32 

53.23 
52.70 
50.94 
53.08 


29.29 

28.05 
29.92 

28.68 

28.16 
28.61 
33.70 

25.74 

28.95 
26.83 
20.88 
32.48 
29.91 
29.84 
29.81 

28.19 
30.20 
30.47 
28.46 


3.97 

4.20 
4.46 
2.73 

2.56 
3.99 
4.56 


Factory 

ex- 
pense 


2.41 

2.91 
2.51 
1.84 

1.76 
2.33 
2.83 


Ad- 
minis- 
trative 

ex- 
pense. 


Selling 

ex- 
pense. 


3.79        2.73 


6.46 
3.34 
7.66 
3.15 
2.84 
3.13 
3.51 


33 
89 
77 
36 


3.31 
1.94 
3.20 
2.07 
2.36 
2.17 
2.04 

2.49 
2.33 
2.44 
2.38 


3.49 

3.75 
3.58 
3.11 

3.98 
3.46 
3.37 

3.60 


.65 
.63 
.83 
.66 


3. 

4. 

3. 

2. 

3.82 

3.25 

4.92 


4.61 
3.78 
3.34 
3.15 


8.46 

10.20 

8.62 
6.89 

4.81 

8.73 
8.86 

8.27 

10.26 
9.11 

10.95 
8.40 
9.18 
7.11 
7.40 

8wl5 
7.10 
9.04 
a  57 


The  variation  in  the  items  of  cost  may  be  due  to  several  causes: 
(1)  QuaUty  of  materials  used;  (2)  waste  and  loss  of  materials;  (3) 
special  prices;  (4)  discounts;  (5)  other  items  of  cost  bearing  a  higher 
or  lower  relative  proportion  to  the  total  cost. 

It  does  not  follow  that  because  one  group  or  estabhshment  had  a 
higher  proportion  of  expenditure  for  du-ect  labor  than  other  groups 
or  estabhshments,  it  had  lower  profits.  Of  the  10  estabhshments 
showing  the  highest  manufacturing  profit,  3  had  a  higher  percentage 


42 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


rv 


SUMMARY. 


43 


of  expense  for  direct  labor  than  the  average  for  all  establishments 
and  7  a  lower  percentage;  and  of  the  6  establishments  showing  a 
manufacturing  loss,  4  had  a  higher  percentage  of  expense  for  direct 
labor  and  2  a  lower  percentage. 

It  should  not  be  assumed  that  an  establishment  whose  proportion 
of  expenditure  for  labor  was  lower  than  that  of  other  establish- 
ments, paid  less  to  its  employees  than  did  the  others.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  earnings  of  individual  employees  might  even  be  greater  in 
the  establishment  with  a    low  percentage  of  labor  cost,  because 

(a)  the    employees  were  more  skilled    than    ordinary  employees; 

(b)  better  superintendence  or  superior  shop  arrangements  enabled 
them  to  turn  out  a  larger  product  per  worker  than  could  be  done 
by  workers  in  factories  less  efficiently  managed;  (c)  more  expensive 
materials  were  used  in  the  goods  manufactured;  (d)  overhead  ex- 
penses were  relatively  high.  ,    •   • 

The  percentages  for  indirect  labor,  factory  expense,  and  adminis- 
trative expense  in  Groups  I  to  III,  decrease  in  importance  as  the 
operating  contracted  increases  in  amount,  except  that  indirect  labor 
is  slightly  higher  in  Group  II  than  in  Group  I;  in  Groups  IV  to  VII, 
they  increase  in  importance  as  the  factory  price  of  the  product  rises, 
witn  the  exception  of  administrative  expense,  in  which  case  they 
decrease;  in  Groups  XV  to  XVIII,  the  percentages  for  indirect  labor 
show  a  tendency  to  increase  and  those  for  factory  expense  and  admin- 
istrative expense  show  a  tendency  to  decrease  as  the  amount  of 
sales  increases. 

COST  AND  PROFIT,  BY  SPECIFIED  UNITS. 

Data  regarding  cost  of  production  of  specific  styles  of  men's  cloth- 
ing were  obtained  from  a  majority  of  the  manufacturers  who  fur- 
nished information  for  the  establishment  schedule.  The  cost  of 
production  of  144  styles  of  three-piece  suits  was  reported  by  43 
establishments;  of  48  styles  of  overcoats,  by  26  establishments;  of 
18  styles  of  separate  trousers,  by  6  establishments. 

All  manufacturers,  even  those  that  are  most  unsystematic  m  cost 
accounting,  are  able  to  state  the  cost  of  direct  labor  on  the  unit, 
because  practically  all  direct-labor  oj^erations  except  cutting  are 
performed  by  pieceworkers.  Manufacturers  also  can  easily  tell 
the  quantity  and  cost  of  each  kind  of  material  that  is  used  in  making 

The  overhead  charges  on  all  units  specified  in  this  report  were 
computed,  according  to  a  uniform  method,  on  the  basis  of  the  over- 
head expenses  of  the  establishment  during  its  last  business  year,  as 
shown  by  the  establishment  schedule. 

Some  establishments  have  such  crude  cost-finding  methods  that 
they  do  not  know  even  approximately  their  profit  or  loss  on  certain 
styles.  Such  unsystematic  establishments  may  continue  for  a  lon^ 
time  to  sell  particular  styles  of  garments  at  a  loss  without  knowing  it. 
Some  establishments,  however,  knowing  accurately  what  a  certain 
style  costs,  will  sell  it  at  a  small  margin  of  profit,  or  even  at  a  loss, 
for  the  purpose  of  attracting  custom  to  more  profitable  styles.  An 
establishment  may  also  find  it  necessary  to  carry  a  complete  line  of 
styles  in  order  to  meet  the  demand  of  its  customers  and  hold  its 
trade,  and  may  consider  it  good  business  policy  to  sell,  at  or  below 


'^^r^ 


cost,  old  or  standard  styles  to  customers  who  will  buy  high-priced 
goods  on  which  a  profit  is  realized.  ,        t  j-a        . 

The  amounts  of  profit  varied  considerably  on  units  of  ditterent 
grades,  and  even  on  units  of  the  same  grade,  and  some  were  sold  at 
a  loss.  Of  210  units  reported,  53,  or  25.24  per  cent,  were  sold  at  a 
loss.  Variations  in  the  percentages  of  profit  on  high,  medium,  and 
low  priced  clothing  appear  in  the  following  table: 

Table  9  —Percentages  op  Average  Manufacturing  Profits  on  Low,  Medium, 
AND  High  Grade  Garments,  Based  on  Average  Net  Price  per  Garment. 


Low  grade, 
under  SS. 

Medium  grade, 
$8  and  under  $15. 

High  grade. 
$15  and  over. 

Qarments. 

Number 
of  units. 

Per  cent 
of  profit. 

Number 
of  units. 

Per  cent 
of  profit. 

Number 
of  units. 

Per  cent 
of  profit. 

Ciilfq                 

18 

7 

all 

a  151 

4.570 

a  5. 781 

83 
31 

3.203 
5.783 

43 
10 

67 

6.724 

Ovftrp/vi.t'^                 -.---.-..---..••-••••••••• 

3.  n3.{ 
66.721 

iTOUSdrs 

«  Under  12.75. 


b  Medium  and  high  grade,  $2.75  and  over. 


SELLING  METHODS. 


.>^, 


Data  regarding  the  selling  cost  and  selling  methods  were  obtained 
from  64  establishments.  Of  the  total  sales  of  these  establishments 
98  21  per  cent  went  to  retailers  and  1.29  per  cent  to  jobbers;  0.21 
per  cent  was  sold  by  mail  order  and  0.08  per  cent  by  tailoring-to- 
the-trade,  and  0.21  per  cent  was  exported.  ,      .  ,.  ^         , 

While  there  is  to  a  certain  extent  a  uniform  scale  of  discounts  and 
time  and  dating  allowances  throughout  the  industry,  yet  the  scale  is 
not  used  by  all  manufacturers.  A  great  deal  depends  upon  the  class 
of  trade  served  and  on  the  character,  reputation,  and  business  methods 
of  the  manufacturing  establishment.  Usually,  however,  the  terms  to 
retailers  in  the  clothing  trade  are  7  per  cent,  10  days;  6  per  cent,  30 
days;  and  5  per  cent,  60  days,  with  6  per  cent  per  annum  for  anticipa- 
tion. These  terms  may  be  said  to  be  fairly  uniform,  but  the  class  of 
merchandise  handled,  reputation  of  the  house,  importance  of  the  ac- 
count and  other  conditions  enter  into  the  terras  of  discount,  dating,  etc. 

Of  the  64  establishments  reporting,  14  are  national  advertisers  and 
50  are  limited  advertisers.  The  total  selling  expense  of  the  14  estab-  r^ 
lishraents  that  advertise  nationally  is  9.41  per  cent,  as  compared  Jii^' 
with  a  total  selling  expense  of  6.42  per  cent  for  the  50  establishments 
that  do  not  advertise  extensively.  The  14  national  advertisers  also 
show  a  higher  percentage  of  manufacturing  and  final  profit  than  the 
50  establishments  doing  limited  advertising. 

Of  the  64  establishments  reporting,  the  12  establishments  that  had 
no  operating  contracted  had  a  totalselling  expense  of  9.76  per  cent,( 
the  30  establishments  with  part  of  operating  contracted,  8.09  per 
cent  and  the  22  establishments  that  had  all  operating  contracted 
had  a  total  selling  expense  of  6.39  per  cent.  The  lower  selling  expense 
of  the  establishments  that  have  all  operating  contracted  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  estabhshments  of  this  description  manufacture  low- 
grade  clothing,  which  does  not  require  high-priced  salesmen,  exten- 
sive advertising,  and  other  heavy  selling  expenses  to  put  it  on  the 
market. 


\ 


AitaiaMMAifil 


44 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


'JNr 


SUMMARY. 


45 


Manufacturers  of  men's  factory-made  clothing  suffer  from  many 
trade  abuses,  which  are  the  cause  of  many  uncertamties  and  losses 
affecting  the  whole  industry.  The  principal  evils  in  the  industry, 
with  which  the  manufacturers  seem  imable  to  cope,  are  as  follows: 
Cancellations,  returns  and  allowances,  revisions,  inaiscriminate  credit, 
extra  discounts  and  dating,  concessions  to  secure  new  accounts,  con- 
signment shipments,  memorandum  orders,  and  long  future  deHvery. 

Data  concerning  returns  and  allowances  and  cancellations  were 
secured  from  22  establishments.  Returns  and  allowances  and  can- 
cellations amounted  to  23.03  per  cent  of  total  net  sales,  returns  and 
allowances  being  7.59  per  cent  and  cancellations  15.44  per  cent.  The 
estimated  losses  due  to  these  causes,  as  based  on  net  sales,  averaged 
1.57  per  cent  on  returns  and  allowances  and  1.29  per  cent  on  cancella- 
tions, making  a  total  estimated  loss  of  2.86  per  cent. 

EASNINOS  OF  EMPLOYEES. 

The  following  table  shows  the  average  rate  of  earnings  per  hour 
by  employees  in  factories  for  the  manufacture  of  men's  clothing  in 
the  seven  cities  in  which  the  production  is  largest.  The  data  in  this 
table  were  derived  from  a  report  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics, 
Department  of  Labor,"  which  shows  the  results  of  an  investigation 
made  in  1913. 

Table  10. — Avebaob  Eabninos  per  Hour  of  Emploteeb  in  Specified  Occupa- 
tions, 1913. 


Occupations. 

Male. 

Funale. 

Occupations.              , 

Male. 

Female. 

Cutters,  cloth: 

Hand 

fO.4355 
.4512 
.3450 

.2540 

Pressers: 

Coat 

SO.  2878 
.3104 
.3360 
.2959 

.2564 

Machine          

Pants 

Fitters  or  trimmers  coat  .... 

Vest 

Basters* 

SO.  1843 
.1659 
.2041 
.1867 

.1989 
.2019 
.2364 
.2065 

All 

Coat 

Hand  sewers: 

Coat 

Pants  .  .                  .      - 

to. 1776 

Vest 

Pants 

.  1633 

AH     

Vest 

.1921 

Operators: 

Coat 

.2948 
.3253 
.3627 
.3090 

All 

.1767 

Examiners,  shop  and  stock 
room 

.2978 
.2683 

Pants                      

Vest 

Bushelersand  tailors 

All 

The  average  hours  of  labor  in  1913  of  nearly  all  occupations  were 
between  52  and  53  per  week.  For  cutters  the  average  was  about  49 
hours  per  week. 

In  this  industry  there  has  been,  during  recent  years,  a  considerable 
increase  of  earnings  per  hour  and  a  noticeable  reduction  in  the  hours 
worked  per  week.  Taking  the  average  earnings  per  hour  and  the 
average  working  hours  per  week  in  1913  as  the  base,  or  100  per  cent, 
the  average  earnings  per  hour  in  1911  were  86  per  cent  and  the 
average  working  hours  per  week  in  that  year  were  105.6  per  cent. 

IMPOSTS. 

The  imports  of  men's  clothing  into  the  United  States  are  almost 
negligible  and  are  generallv  English  overcoats,  novelty  garments, 
like  me  Bahnacaan  and  golfing  and  motoring  clothes.     No  sack  suits 

•  Bulletin  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics.    Whole  No.  161. 


/-'f-A 


are  imported.  The  people  in  this  country  who  demand  English 
clothes  are  few.  They  reside  usually  in  the  seaport  cities.  New  i  ork, 
Boston,  etc.,  and  are  in  touch  with  England  either  socially  or  com- 
mercially. No  complaint  about  foreign  competition  was  made  by 
any  manufactiu-er  interviewed  during  this  investigation.  The  Amer- 
ican people,  except  a  very  few,  prefer  American  stvles,  and  are 
satisfied  that  the  workmanship  on  ready-made  clothing  is  much 
better  in  this  country  than  in  any  other.  The  improvement  in  the 
styles  and  workmanship  of  ready-made  clothing  in  the  United  States 
has  led  to  an  enormous  increase  in  the  production  during  the  last 

20_years.  ,11.  / 

The  completeness  of  the  factory  equipment,  the  thoroughness  of 
the  factory  organization,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  working  force, 
which  are  noticeable  in  many  establishments  for  making  men's  cloth- 
ing in  this  countr}^,  are  not  even  approached  in  other  countries.  The 
ready-made  clothing  manufactured  in  Europe  is  nearly  all  of  low- 
grade  cheap  varieties,  and  is  almost  invariably  made  in  small  factories, 
in  shops,  or  in  the  homes  of  the  workers. 

During  the  fiscal  years  1898  to  1909,  while  the  Dingley  Act  was  m 
force,  the  computed  ad  valorem  rate  of  duty  on  wearing  apparel  com- 
posed wholly  or  in  part  of  wool,  worsted,  etc.,  varied  from  73.10  to 
78.49  per  cent,  and  during  the  fiscal  years  1909  to  1913,  while  the 
Payne-Aldrich  Act  was  in  force,  the  computed  ad  valorem  rate 
of  duty  varied  from  74.14  to  77.09  per  cent.  By  the  Simmons- 
Underwood  Act  the  rate  was  reduced  to  35  per  cent  ad  valorem. 

The  statistics  of  imports  do  not  separately  specify  the  importa- 
tions of  men's  clothing,  but  the  imports  for  consumption  of  wearing 
apparel  of  all  kinds,  composed  wholly  or  in  part  of  wool,  worsted, 
etc.,  amounted,  in  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1910,  to  $1,353,074; 
1911,  $1,794,081;  1912,  $1,608,156;  1913,  $1,481,068;  1914,  $1,633,- 
700;  1915,  $1,317,649.  During  the  period  from  July  1,  1913,  to 
December  31,  1913,  under  the  old  tanff  the  imports  were  $901,3B0; 
during  the  period  from  January  1,  1914,  to  June  30,  1914,  under  the 
new  tariff,  they  were  $732,320.  The  production  of  men's  and  boys' 
clothing,  as  reported  by  the  Census  of  Manufactures,  was  $485,677,493 
in  1909. 

EZPOBTS. 

The  exports  of  men's  clothing  are  insignificant  as  compared  with 
the  production  in  the  United  States.  During  the  fiscal  year  1914 
the  exports  of  woolen  wearing  apparel  of  all  kinds  amounted  to 
$2,148,235;  of  cotton  wearing  apparel  of  all  kinds,  except  corsets, 
hosiery,  and  other  knit  goods,  $5,999,887.  Most  of  the  exports  of 
clothing  before  the  war  began  in  Europe  went  to  North  American 
countries,  principally  Canada  and  Mexico.  Ready-to-wear  clothing 
is  not  commonly  worn  in  Europe  except  in  the  cheaper  grades. 
American-made  clothing  for  men  was  introduced  in  London,  Eng- 
land, about  1907  or  1908,  and  small  quantities  have  been  sold  m 
other  European  cities. 

Though  South  America  offers  some  field  for  the  exportation  of 
clothing,  Europe,  South  Africa,  and  Australia  offer  the  greatest 
opportunity.  A  comparatively  small  proportion  of  the  population 
m  South  America  wear  well-made  clothing.  The  South  American 
trade  demands  long  selling  terms  and  liberal  credits,  which  American 


If 


46 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


■fv 


manufacturers  have  generally  been  unwilling  to  extend.  High  tariff* 
have  been  an  obstacle  to  South  American  trade,  but  it  is  believed 
that  a  market  can  be  built  up  for  two-piece  suits  made  in  the  United 
States. 

American  manufacturers  of  clothing  have  made  little  effort  to 
develop  foreign  trade  except  in  Canada  and,  to  a  limited  extent, 
in  Mexico.  They  have  been  too  much  engrossed  in  the  home  mar- 
ket. What  little  clothing  they  have  exported  has  usually  been  sold 
through  a  buyer  or  agent  resident  in  this  country.  They  have  not 
catered  to  the  needs  of  the  foreign  market  nor  considered  the  styles 
of  clothing  that  are  preferred  by  people  in  foreign  countries.  To 
extend  their  foreign  trade,  American  manufacturers  must  study  for- 
eign conditions,  cater  to  foreign  needs  and  prejudices,  and  send  out 
ssdesmen  who  can  speak  foreign  languages. 


,--i.^ 


*> 


CHAFFER  I. 

CAPITA!.  NET  SALES,  AND  TURNOVEE. 

Data  regjarding  the  cost  of  production  of  men's  ready-made  clothii^ 
were  obtained  from  64  establishments,  the  figures  covering  their  last 
business  year.  The  establishments  were  classified  into  18  groups, 
according  to  their  methods  of  manufacture  (amount  of  contracting), 
factory  prices  of  products,  location  of  factories,  and  amount  of  net 
sales. 

MANUFACTITBING  AND  FINAL  PEOFIT. 

Table  11,  which  follows,  shows  the  amount  of  capital  employed  in 
business  by  each  group  of  the  64  estabUshments  reporting,  at  the 
beginning  of  its  latest  business  period,  the  net  sales  and  their  ratio  to 
capital,  the  manufacturing  profit,  and  the  final  profit.  Good  will, 
reported  by  only  4  e^stablishments,  is  not  included  m  the  table: 

Table  11. — Capital  Employed  in  Business,  Net  Sales,  and  Manufacturing 
AND  Final  Profit,  by  Groups  of  Establishments. 


Classification. 


All  establishments  reporting 

Establishments  having— 

No  operating  contracted  — 

Part  of  operating  contracted. 

All  operating  contracted  — 

Establishments      manufactur- 

Suits  and  overcoats  at  fac- 
tory iHice  under  $8 

Suits  and  overcoats  at  fac- 
tory price,  $8  and  under  $15. 

Suits  and  overcoats  at  fac- 
tory price,  $15  and  over. . . . 

Separate  trousers,  etc 

Establishments  located  in  - 

Chicago 

Philadelphia 

Cleveland  and  Milwaukee. . 

Rochester 

Baltimore 

New  York  City 

Cincinnati 

Establishments  with  net  sales— 

Under  $500.000 

$500,000 and  under  $1 ,000,000. 

$1,000,000   and   under 
$2,000,000 

$2,000,000  and  over 


Groups. 


I 

II 
HI 


IV 


VI 
VII 

VIII 

IX 

X 

XI 
XII 
XIII 
XIV 

XV 
XVI 

XVII 
XVIII 


Num- 
ber of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


64 

12 
30 
22 


37 

11 

8 

4 
7 
4 

7 

6 

30 

6 

27 
14 

14 
9 


Capital 

employed 

in  business 


$32,850,950 

5,  WO,  853 

20,515,075 

7,295,022 


1,822,357 

22,422,566 

6,380,741 
2,216,286 

5,32:i,036 
1,378,355 
3,756,576 
5,6S1,484 
4,676,822 
9,989,213 
2,045,464 

3,96:i,065 
3,265,630 

9,723,025 
15,899,230 


Net  sales. 


Amount. 


$66,947,954 

11,185,364 
38,507,718 
17,254,872 


4,741,851 

45,818,961 

11,668,956 
4,718,186 

9,612,799 
3,005,556 
5,473,154 

11,003,401 
8.376,803 

25,102,054 
4,374,187 

9,101,587 
9, 443, 897 

20,288,752 
28,113,718 


Ratio  to 
capital 


2.04 

2.22 
1.88 
2.37 


2.60 

2.04 

1.83 
2.13 

1.81 
2.18 
1.46 
1.94 
1.79 
2.51 
2.14 

2.30 
2.89 

2.09 
1.77 


Manufac- 
turing 
profit. 


$3,658,893 

633,382 
2,008,877 
1,016,634 


287,678 

2,837,492 

327, 499 
206,224 

716,026 
195,970 
345,929 
569,864 
424,034 
1,257,325 
149, 745 

431,812 
387,741 

947,809 
1,891,531 


Final 
profit. 


$3,440,808 

523,089 

1,968,740 

948,979 


249,780 

2,660,496 

329,417 
201,115 

730,987 
174,077 
353, 192 
579, 789 
436,953 
1,067,3  3 
98,447 

376,209 
336,831 

770,832 
1,956,936 


The  manufacturing  profit  shown  by  groups  in  the  foregoing  table 
was  found  by  adding  tne  cost  of  goods  produced,  the  selling  expense, 
and  the  cost  of  finished  goods  purchased,  and  from  this  sum  deductii^ 
any  increase  in  the  stock  of  goods  during  the  year,  or  adding  to  this 
sum  any  decrease  in  the  stock  of  goods.  This  deduction  or  addition 
gave  the  cost  to  the  manufacturer  of  the  goods  sold,  which  figures 
subtracted  from  the  net  sales  gave,  the  manufacturing  profit. 

What  is  called  the  final  pront  was  found  by  adding  to  the  manu- 
facturing profit  the  miscellaneous  income  from  real  estate,  bank 
balances  or  investments  outside  the  manufacturing  business,    and 

47 


48 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


>       I 


I 


deducting  income  from  miscellaneous  sources,  interest  on  current 
loans,  and  depreciation  on  machinery  and  fixtures.  No  item  of 
expense  for  investments  outside  the  manufacturing  business  was 
reported.  Of  the  64  establishments,  19  reported  no  depreciation, 
but  depreciation  was  calculated  on  the  value  of  machinery  and  fix- 
tures of  all  establishments  at  the  uniform  rate  of  8  per  cent. 

Salaries  of  active  officers  and  the  drawing  accounts  of  partners 
were  included  in  the  cost  of  production  before  profits  or  losses  were 
figured.  Likewise,  in  case  of  an  individual  owner  of  an  establish- 
ment, the  costs  included  the  estimated  amount  he  would  have  to  pay 
an  employee  for  service  such  as  he  himself  performed.  Before  profits 
or  losses  were  figured,  all  expenses  for  selling  were  included  m  the 
cost  of  production. 

As  the  greater  number  of  the  64  establishments  from  which  data 
were  secured  rented  their  factories,  those  which  did  own  their  build- 
ings were  put  on  a  rental  basis.  In  estimating  the  rent  where  the 
building  was  owned,  the  items  for  depreciation,  repairs,  fire  insur- 
ance, and  taxes  relating  to  buildings  were  canceled.  From  the  value 
of  the  building,  as  shown  on  the  books  of  the  company,  the  reserve 
for  depreciation  on  buildings  and  the  cost  of  additions  and  better- 
ments during  the  year  were  deducted.  On  the  remainder  10  per  cent 
was  charged  against  cost  of  manufacture  as  rent. 

PEBCENTAGES  OF  PROFIT  ON  CAPITAL  AND  NET  SALES. 

The  percentages  of  manufacturing  profit  and  final  profit,  based 
both  on  capital  employed  in  business  and  on  net  sales,  are  shown  in 
the  following  table,  by  groups  of  establishments: 

Table  12.— Average  Percentages  of  Manufacturing  Profit  and  Final  Profit 
ON  Capital  Employed  in  Business  and  on  Net  Sales,  by  Groups  of  Estab- 
lishments. 


Classlflcation. 


Groups 


All  establishments  repwting 

Establishments  having— 

No  operating  contracted 

Part  of  operating  contracted 

All  operating  contracted 

Establishments  manufacturing- 
Suits  and  overcoats  at  factory  price  under  fS. 
Suits  and  overcoats  at  factory  price,  $8  and 

under  $15 

Suits  and  overcoats  at  factory  price,  $15  and 


over 

Separate  trousers,  etc 

Establishments  located  in— 

Chicago 

Philadelphia 

Cleveland  and  Milwaukee 

Rochester 

Baltimore 

New  York  City 

Cincinnati 

Establishments  with  net  sales— 

Under  $500,000 

$500,000  and  under  $1.000.000. . 

$1,000,000  and  under  12,000,000. 

$2,000,000  or  over 


I 

11 
III 

rv 


VI 
VII 

VIII 

IX 

X 

XI 
XII 
XllI 
XIV 

XV 

XVI 

XVII 

XVI II 


Number 
of  estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


64 

12 
30 
22 

8 

37 

11 

8 

4 

7 
4 

7 

e 

30 
6 

37 
14 
14 

9 


Per  cent  of  manu- 
facturing profit 


on- 


Capital 

em- 
ployed in 
business. 


11.14 

12.56 

9.79 

13.94 

15.79 

12.65 

5.13 
9.30 

13.45 
14.22 

9.21 
10.03 

9.07 
12.59 

7.32 

10.90 

11.87 

9.75 

11.90 


Net 
sales. 


5.46 

5.66 
5.22 
5.89 

6.07 

6.19 

2.81 
4.37 

7.45 
6.52 
6.32 
5.18 
5.06 
5.01 
3.42 

4.74 

4.11 
4.67 
6.73 


Per  cent  of  final 
profit  on- 


Capital 

em- 
pl03red  in 
business. 


10.47 

10.38 

9.60 

13.01 

13.71 

11.87 

5.16 
9.07 

13.73 
12.63 

9.40 
10.20 

9.34 
10.69 

4.81 

9.49 
10.31 

7.93 
12.31 


Net 
sales. 


5.14 

4.67 
5.11 
5.50 

5.27 

5.81 

2.82 
4.36 


60 
79 
45 
27 
5.22 
4.25 
2.25 


4.13 
3.57 
3.80 
6.96 


■^.' .: 


4 


CAPITAL,  NET   SALES,  AND   TUBNOVEB, 


TUBNOVEB  OF  CAPITAL. 


49 


The  percentages  of  profit  on  capital  employed  in  the  business  were 
much  larger  than  those  on  net  sales  because,  in  this  industry  the 
net  sales  each  year  are  considerably  greater  than  the  capital  employed, 
and  the  latter  can  therefore  be  turned  over  several  times  durmg  the 
year.  Thus  for  the  64  establishments  reporting,  the  manufacturing 
profit  on  the  capital  employed  was  11.14  per  cent  and  on  the  net 
sales,  5.46  per  cent,  the  former  being  2.04  times  the  latter,  as  shown 
in  Table  11.  The  same  relation  existed  between  the  final  profit  on 
the  capital  employed,  10.47  per  cent,  and  on  the  net  sales,  5.14  per 
cent. 

As  the  capital  turnover  varies  in  different  establishments,  the 
relation  between  the  profits  based  on  capital  employed  and  the  profit 
on  net  sales  varies  accordingly,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  preceding  table. 
The  profits  based  on  net  sales  are  fully  discussed  in  Chapter  11,  Cost 
and  Profit  by  Eistablishments. 

Table  13  shows  for  each  of  the  64  establishments,  as  well  as  for 
each  of  the  first  three  groups,  the  manufacturing  profit  and  final 
profit  based  on  capital  employed  in  business  and  on  net  sales. 

Table  13. — Percentage  of  Manufacturing  Profit  and  Final  Profit  on  Capital 

Employed  in  Business  and  on  Net  Sales. 


Establishments  having— 


No  operating  contracted  (Qroup  I). 


Total 

Part  of  operating  contracted  (Group  11). 


rer  ceni,  oi 
facturing 
on- 

mauu- 
profit 

Per  cent  of  final 
profit  on— 

Establish- 

' 

ment 

No.- 

Capital 

Capital 

employed 

Net 

employed 

Net 

in  busi- 

sales. 

in  busi- 

sales. 

ness. 

ness. 

1 

15.38 

12.78 

13.48 

11.20 

2 

22.78 

4.95 

20.47 

4.45 

8 

13.20 

6.79 

12.93 

6.65 

4 

23.65 

6.50 

21.68 

5.96 

6 

21.07 

5.24 

19.04 

4.74 

« 

20.69 

4.61 

16.08 

3.58 

7 

2.64 

1.92 

4.32 

3.13 

8 

8.36 

3.34 

5.48 

2.19 

9 

12.13 

7.15 

11.00 

6.48 

10 

3.23 

1.52 

a  6. 89 

a  3. 23 

11 

8.53 

5.87 

8.34 

5.74 

12 

39.82 

8.83 

38.82 

8.61 

t 

12.56 

5.66 

10.38 

4.67 

13 

5.94 

2.01 

1.44 

.49 

14 

9.02 

5.20 

7.49 

4.32 

15 

0.73 

a. 40 

0  2.13 

0  1.15 

16 

3.45 

2.23 

3.16 

2.04 

17 

11.03 

5.03 

10.98 

5.01 

18 

01.99 

a  1.10 

0  2.59 

0  1.43 

19 

29.40 

6.09 

28.97 

6.00 

20 

13.26 

5.79 

11.39 

4.97 

21 

6.09 

3.07 

5.07 

2.56 

22 

24.45 

6.89 

22.53 

6.35 

23 

12.96 

3.59 

12.21 

3.38 

24 

7.96 

3.25 

7.07 

2.89 

25 

30.29 

8.28 

29.93 

8.18 

26 

16.62 

4.50 

13.62 

3.69 

27 

15.09 

6.51 

10.43 

4.50 

28 

25.70 

3.41 

20.92 

2.78 

29 

a  1.09 

a. 54 

a  2. 10 

ol.OS 

30 

8.46 

3.11 

5.06 

1.86 

31 

3.33 

1.07 

a  4. 57 

a  1.46 

32 

13.67 

7.33 

10.02 

5.41 

•  Loss. 


11914«— 16 4 


50 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


/-^ 


Table  13. — Percentage  of  Manufacturing  Profit  and  Final  Profit  on  Capital 
Employed  in  Business  and  on  Net  Sales — Continued. 


Establish- 
ment 
Na- 

Per  cent  of  manu- 
facturing profit 
oa— 

Per  cent  of  final 
profit  OD— 

Establishments  having — 

Capital 
employed 
in  busi- 
ness. 

Net 
sales. 

Capital 
employed 
in  busi- 
ness. 

Net 
sales. 

Part  of  operating  ccmtracted  (Group  II) 

33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 

18.46 

6.75 

14.80 

0  1.40 

a. 26 

a  21 

3.87 

9.09 

12.97 

26.91 

6.91 

3.74 

4.57 

0.77 

a. 27 

5.41 

3.41 

6.23 

7.68 

10.57 

15.65 

3.96 

11.11 

4.56 

1.36 

8.12 

6.38 

9.78 

12.25 

26.19 

5  86 

2.57 
3.43 
2.56 
1.41 
5.35 
5.62 
6.70 
7.26 
10.29 

Total 

9.79 

5.22 

9.60 

5  11 

All  operating  contracted  (Group  III) 

43 
44 

45 
46 

47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 

18.50 

a  4. 30 

16.18 

9.28 
22.12 

8.96 

5.90 
13.82 
16.12 
25.89 

4.29 
.06 
27.66 
26.03 
13.12 
21.82 
14.96 
10.02 

4.51 
38.25 

4.17 
20.77 

5.79 
0  1.72 
7.04 
5.48 
4.71 
3.80 
3.00 
6.59 
8.19 
8.44 
2.08 
.04 
7.20 
6.20 
S.74 
6.40 
8.07 
7.55 
1.30 
9.57 
2.13 
8.68 

17.64 

a  6. 98 

15.51 

7.82 
18.40 

9.60 

3.00 
12.34 
16.95 
22.94 

3.06 

0  1.67 

22.61 

25.97 

9.31 
20.44 
13.05 

9.93 

3.08 
33.80 

4.90 
20.58 

5  52 

0  2.79 
6.75 
4.62 
3.92 
4.10 
1.52 
5.88 
8.62 
7.48 
1.48 

ol.OO 
5.89 
6.19 
2.65 
5.99 
7.04 
7.49 
.89 
8.46 
2.50 
8.60 

Total 

13.94 

5.89 

13.01 

5  50 

«  Loss. 


The  foregoing  table  shows  that  of  the  64  establishments  from  which 
data  were  secured,  6  had  manufacturing  losses  and  7  had  final  losses. 
The  greater  number  of  establishments  with  final  losses  was  due  chiefly 
to  interest  charges.  The  table  shpws  that  of  the  64  establishments 
reporting,  36  earned  10  per  cent  or  more  of  manufacturing  profit  and 
34  earned  10  per  cent  or  more  of  final  profit  on  capital  employed  in 
business,  the  highest  percentage  of  manufacturing  profit  being  39.82 
and  of  final  pront  38.82  (establishment  No.  12). 

The  fact  tnat  an  establishment  made  a  very  small  profit  or  had  a 
loss  may  have  been  due  to  (a)  poor  factory  management;  (b)  poor 
cost-finding  system;  (c)  poor  selUng  methods;  (d)  too  httle  care  in 
extending  credits;  (e)  lack  of  sufficient  capital;  (f)  too  much  with- 
drawn from  the  business  by  the  owner,  partners,  or  officers. 

PBOFITS  EABNED  BY  LABGE  AND  SMALL  ESTABLISHMENTS. 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  large  or  small  factories 
are  more  efficiently  conducted  with  reference  to  economy  of  produc- 
tion.    In  the  larger  factories  efficiency  systems  have  effected  certain 


r\ 


A. 


-< 


4> 


r 


CAPITAL,  NET   SALES,  AND   TURNOVER. 


51 


economies,  but  in  some  of  these  factories  the  overhead  expenses  are 
disproportionately  large. 

The  establishments  m  each  group  shown  in  the  preceding  table  were 
arranged  in  the  order  of  the  amounts  of  net  sales,  the  establishment 
with  the  smallest  sales  being  first  and  the  one  with  the  largest  last. 
An  examination  of  the  table  shows  there  were  no  decided  differences 
in  the  percentages  of  profit  between  the  smaller  and  the  larger  estab- 
lishments in  each  group. 

The  following  taole  snows  the  average  percentage  of  manufacturing 
profit  on  capital  employed  in  business  and  on  net  sales,  bv  establish- 
ments making  men's  factory-made  clothing  in  the  several  centers  of 
manufacture: 

Table  14. — Average  Percentaqe  op  Manufacturing  Profit  by  Establish- 
ments Making  Men's  Factory-Made  Clothing  in  the  Several  (Centers  of 
Manufacture. 


Establishments  in— 


Chicago.  4  establishments,  Group  VIII 

Philadelphia,  7  establishments,  Group  IX 

Cleveland  and  Milwaukee,  4  establishments,  Group  X. 

Rochester,  7  establishments.  Group  XI 

Baltimore,  6 establishments,  Group  XII 

New  York  City,  30  establishments.  Group  XITl 

Cincinnati,  6 establishments,  Group  XIV. 


Average  manufactur- 
ing pro6t  on- 


Capital 
employed 
in  busi- 
ness. 


Percent. 
13.45 
14.22 

9.21 
10.03 

9.07 
12.59 

7.32 


Net 
sales. 


Percent. 
7.45 
6.52 
6.32 
5.18 
5.06 
5.01 
3.42 


^^m 


i«& 


I 


COST  AND   PBOFIT  BY   ESTABLISHMENTS. 


53 


CHAPTER  II. 
COST  AND  PROFIT  BY  ESTABUSHMESTTS. 

The  schedules  used  for  the  collection  of  data  showed  the  various 
items  of  the  cost  of  production.  The  principal  divisions  of  costs  were 
for  raw  material,  direct  labor,  indirect  labor,  factory  expense,  admin- 
istrative expense,  and  selling  expense.  Each  of  the  divisions,  except 
that  for  materials,  was  subdivided  into  specified  items.  The  salaries 
of  active  partners  or  officers,  or  the  estimated  amounts  that  individual 
owners  would  have  paid  for  services  that  they  themselves  performed, 
were  entered  under  indirect  labor,  administrative  expense,  or  selling 
expense,  according  to  the  character  of  the  services  rendered. 

In  presenting  tne  data  secured  from  the  64  establishments,  the 
actual  amounts  of  their  net  sales  and  of  their  expenses  for  a  year  are 
not  shown  by  individual  establishments,  because  by  such  figures  some 
establishments  might  be  identified.  The  net  sales,  the  items  of  cost, 
and  the  profit  are  shown  by  percentages,  according  to  establishments, 
and  by  both  averages  and  percentages,  according  to  groups. 

The  64  establishments  were  grouped  in  four  different  ways:  Ac- 
cording to  the  extent  contract  labor  entered  into  the  operations 
(Groups  I  to  III) ;  according  to  the  grade  or  Quality  of  clothing  manu- 
factured (Groups  IV  to  VIlI) ;  according  to  locality  (Groups  VIII  to 
XIV);  according  to  the  amount  of  net  sales  (Groups  XV  to  XVIII). 

The  terms  "manufacturing  profit"  and  "final  profit"  are  explained 
in  the  chapter  on  "Capital,  Net  Sales,  and  Turnover,"  page  47. 

COST  AND  PBOFIT  BASED  ON  NET  SALES. 

From  the  data  derived  from  the  establishment  schedules  the  table 
that  follows  shows,  by  jgroups  of  establishments,  the  average  net 
sales,  the  average  cost  of  items,  and  the  average  profit  on  net  sales  per 
establishment: 


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54 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


COST   AND    PROFIT   BY   ESTABLISHMENTS. 


55 


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The  average  net  sales  of  the  64  establishments  that  reported  were 
$1,046,061;  the  average  cost  of  goods  sold,  $988,891;  the  average 
manufacturing  profit,  $57,170;  the  average  final  profit,  $53,762. 
These  items  for  aU  establishments  and  for  the  various  groups  are 
shown  in  Table  16,  which  follows: 

Table  16. — Average  Net  Sales,  Cost  op  Goods  Sold,  and  Manufacturing  and 

Final  Profit,  by  Groups  op  Establishments. 


Establishments. 


All  establishments  retorting 

Establishments  having— 

No  operating  contracted  (Group  I) 

Part  opM^ting  contracted  (Group  II) 

All  operating  contracted  (Group  III) 

Establishments  with  factory  price  of  units— 

Under  $8  (^Group  IV) 

$8  and  under  $15  (Group  V) 

tl5and  over  (Group  VI) 

Separate  trousers,  etc.  (Group  VII) 

Establishments  located  in— 

Chicago  (Group  VIII) 

Philadelphia  (Group  IX) 

Cleveland  and  Milwaukee  (Group  X) 

Rochester  (Group  XI) 

Baltimore  (Group  XII) , 

New  York  City  (Group  XIII) 

Cincinnati  (Group  XI V^ 

Establishments  with  net  sales  of— 

Under  $500,000  (^Group  XV) 

$50a,(K)0  and  under  $1,000,(K)0  (Group  XVI)... 

$1,000,000  and  under  $2,000,(KK»  (Group  XVII) 

$2,000,000  and  over  (Group  XVIII) 


Number 
of  estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


64 

12 
30 
22 

8 
37 
11 

8 

4 
7 
4 
7 
6 
30 
6 

27 

14 

14 

9 


Average 
net  sales. 


$1,046,061 

032, 114 

1,283,591 

784,312 

502,731 
1,238,350 
1,060,814 

589,773 

2,403,200 

429,365 

1,368,288 

1,571,914 

1,396,134 

836, 735 

729,031 

337,096 

674,564 

1,449,197 

3,123,746 


Average 

cost  of 

goods  sold. 


$988,891 

879,332 

1,216,628 

738, 101 

556,771 
1,161,661 
1,031,041 

563,995 

2,224,194 

401,370 

1,281,806 

1,490,505 

1,325,462 

794,824 

704,074 

321, 103 

646,868 
1,381,496 
2,913,576 


Average 
manufac- 
turing 
profit. 


$57, 170 

52,782 
66,963 
46,211 

35,960 
76,689 
29,773 
25,778 

179,006 
27,995 
86,482 
81,409 
70,672 
41,911 
24,957 

15,993 

27,696 

67,701 

210,170 


Aver- 
age 
final 
profit. 


$53,762 

43,591 
65,625 
43,136 

31,223 
71,905 
29,947 
25,139 

182,747 
24,868 
88,298 
82,827 
72,825 
35,579 
16,408 

13,934 

24,059 

55,059 

217,437 


Group  III,  consisting  of  22  establishments  which  have  all  their 
operating  contracted,  shows  the  smallest  average  net  sales,  indicating 
tnat  the  larger  establishments  generally  have  their  operating  per- 
formed either  entirely  in  their  own  shops  or  only  partly  in  contract 
shops. 

In  the  grouping  according  to  character  and  price  of  product,  estab- 
lishments are  assigned  to  the  groups  which  most  nearly  represent  their 
product,  even  though  other  grades  of  goods  are  produced  there. 
Thus,  if  the  factory  prices  of  75  per  cent  of  the  goods  produced  are 
under  $8  and  25  per  cent  are  $8  or  over,  the  establishment  is  placed 
in  Group  IV,  ''Under  $8;"  if  75  per  cent  are  $8  and  under  $15  and 
25  per  cent  are  under  $8,  it  is  placed  in  Group  V,  '*$8  and  under 
$15,"  and  so  on. 

In  the  third  grouping  the  establishments  were  classified  according 
to  locality.  Reports  were  obtained  from  establishments  in  eight 
cities.  A  sufficient  number  of  estabhshments  was  not  obtained  for 
either  Cleveland  or  Milwaukee  to  make  a  group  for  each  of  these 
cities,  and  for  this  reason  the  establishments  in  the  two  cities  are 
combined,  so  as  to  avoid  disclosing  the  identity  of  any  establish- 
ment. While  the  entire  field  was  not  covered  in  any  city,  the  num- 
ber of  establishments  reported  may  be  considered  as  representative. 

In  both  the  manufacturing  and  the  final  profit  it  will  be  found 
that  the  groups  containing  the  larger  estabhshments  show  greater 
average  profits  than  the  groups  containing  the  smaller  establish- 
ments.    It  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  tne  larger  estabhshments 


r'T> 


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56 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


earned  a  greater  percentage  of  profit  on  net  sales  or  on  investment 
than  did  the  smaller  establishments.  A  more  acem'ate  way  to 
measm*e  the  amount  of  profit  for  any  estabhshment  or  group  is  the 
percentage  of  profit  on  net  sales  or  on  the  investment. 

PEBCENTAGES  OF  SPECIFIED  ITEMS  OF  COST. 

Table  17,  on  page  57,  shows  the  percentages,  based  on  net  sales, 
for  the  various  items  of  cost  and  for  the  manufacturing  and  final 
profit,  by  establishments  grouped  according  to  the  amount  of  con- 
tracting (Groups  I  to  III),  factory  prices  of  products  (Groups  IV  to 
VII), location  (Groups  VIII  to  XIV),  and  amount  of  net  sales  (Groups 
XV  to  XVIII). 

Success  in  the  men's  clothing  industry  depends  largely  upon  the 
good  judgment  of  the  manufacturer  in  buying  his  materials.  Other 
factors  of  success  are  the  possession  of  sufficient  capital,  modem  fac- 
tory equipment,  efficient  factory  management,  and  an  efficient  selling 
organization.  It  is  practically  impossible  to  trace  statistically  the 
eflfect  of  each  of  these  reasons  for  successful  business,  but  a  study  of 
the  percentages  of  the  items  of  cost  of  the  product  will,  at  lea^  to 
some  extent,  indicate  whether  or  not  the  general  management  of  an 
establishment  is  efficient. 

Of  the  total  additions  to  the  manufacturing  profit,  interest  received 
is  the  most  important  item,  being  0.37  per  cent,  or  more  than  three- 
fifths  of  the  total  additions.  Of  the  total  deductions  from  the  manu- 
facturing profit,  interest  paid  on  current  loans  is  the  most  important 
item,  being  0.75  per  cent,  or  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  total  deduc- 
tions. 

The  average  manufacturing  profit  on  net  sales  varies  but  slightly 
in  the  grouping  according  to  method  of  manufacture.  It  thus  ap- 
pears that,  on  an  average,  the  profits  are  nearly  the  same  whether 
the  contract  system  is  employed  or  whether  the  goods  are  made 
entirely  or  in  part  in  the  manufacturing  establishment. 

The  group  of  establishments  with  net  sales  of  $2,000,000  and  over 
shows  a  considerably  larger  percentage  of  manufacturing  as  well  as 
final  profit  than  the  groups  of  establishments  with  smaller  net  sales 

PEBCENTAGES  OF  COST  AND  PBOFIT,  BY  ESTABLISHMENTS. 

Table  18,  on  page  59,  shows  percentages  of  cost  and  profit  based 
on  net  sales,  by  individual  estaolishments,  arranged  in  tne  order  of 
their  manufacturing  profits,  from  the  highest  profit  to  the  greatest 
loss. 


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MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


^    I^V^' 


COST   AND   PROFIT   BY    ESTABLISHMENTS. 


65 


The  foregoing  table  is  presented  to  compare  individual  establish- 
ments in  regard  to  items  of  expense  and  to  show  their  relative  effi- 
ciency as  measured  by  their  percentages  of  manufacturing  profit. 

PBOFTT  NOT  DEPENDENT  ON  LABOB  COST. 

It  does  not  follow  that  because  one  establishment  had  a  higher 
proportion  of  expenditure  for  labor  than  other  establishments  of  the 
same  kbid  it  had  less  profits.  The  fact  that  high  profits  are  not 
dependent  on  low  labor  cost  is  strikbigly  ilhistrated  by  establish- 
ments Nos.  62  and  44,  the  former  having  a  manufacturing  profit  of 
9.57  per  cent  and  the  latter  a  manufacturing  loss  of  1.72  per  cent, 
although  the  direct  labor  costs — 29.24  per  cent  for  establishment  No. 
62  and  29.32  per  cent  for  establishment  No.  44 — may  be  said  to  be 
same;  or  by  establishments  Nos.  42  and  3,  the  former  showing  a  manu- 
facturing profit  of  10.57  per  cent,  and  the  latter  6.79  per  cent, 
although  tiie  former  shows  a  direct  labor  cost  of  25.11  per  cent  and 
the  latter  only  18.54  per  cent,  which  is  next  to  the  lowest  labor  cost. 

Of  the  58  establishments  that  show  manufacturing  profits,  2 
earned  more  than  10  per  cent  on  net  sales,  31  earned  more  than  5 
but  less  than  10  per  cent,  24  earned  more  than  1  but  less  than  5  per 
cent,  and  1  earned  less  than  1  per  cent. 

Tliough  not  indicated  in  the  table,  3  establishments  with  net 
sales  of  less  than  $S00,000  and  4  with  net  sales  of  $2,000,000  or 
more,  are  among  the  10  establishments  earning  the  highest  percent- 
age of  manufacturing  profit;  and  among  the  10  establisnments  at  the 
other  extreme,  or  those  earning  the  smallest  manufacturing  profit 
and  those  showing  a  manufacturing  loss,  there  are  4  estabhsnments 
with  net  sales  of  less  than  $500,000  and  4  with  net  sales  of  $1,000,000 
but  less  than  $2,000,000. 

COST  BASED  ON  MANXTFACTUBING  AND  SELUNG  EXPENSE. 

The  foregoing  table  shows  the  percentages  of  the  items  of  cost 
and  the  percentages  of  profit  based  on  net  sales.  The  percentages  of 
the  it^ms  of  cost,  if  based  on  the  total  cost  of  goods  manufactured 
and  the  selling  expense,  are  different  from  what  they  are  if  based  on 
net  sales.  If  oased  on  the  net  sales,  the  item  of  profit  is  a  part  of 
the  divisor,  and  in  that  case  the  percentage  of  each  item  of  cost  is 
smaUer  than  when  the  computation  is  based  on  the  cost  of  manufac- 
turing and  selling.  When  there  is  a  loss,  the  divisor  is  correspond- 
ingly smaller  and  the  quotient  in  each  case  is  larger. 

Furthermore,  the  amount  of  goods  manufactured  during  a  busi- 
ness year  may  be  greater  or  less  man  the  amount  of  net  sales.  Com- 
parison of  the  inventory  of  finished  goods  on  hand  at  the  end  of  a 
Dusiness  year  with  the  inventory  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  may 
show  a  smaller  amount  on  hand  at  the  end  of  the  year,  in  which  case 
the  quantity  of  the  goods  sold  during  the  year  would  have  been 
greater  than  the  quantity  manufactured  and  purchased.  If  the 
closing  inventory  were  greater  than  the  openmg  inventory,  the 
quantity  of  goods  sold  during  the  year  would  have  been  less  than  the 
quantity  manufactured  and  purchased. 

In  Table  19,  on  page  66,  the  percentages  of  the  items  of  cost  are 
based  on  the  total  manufacturing  and  selling  expense;  that  is,  on  the 


A 


« 


' 


total  cost  of  the  product  and  selling  expense  of  the  factory  during 
the  year,  and  not  on  the  amount  of  sales. 

Raw  materials  account  for  more  than  half  of  the  total  cost,  being 
52.39  per  cent  for  all  establishments.  There  is  very  httle  difference 
in  the  relative  cost  of  materials  in  Groups  I  and  II,  but  in  establish- 
ments having  all  operating  contracted,  Group  III,  the  relative  cost 
is  higher. 

Direct  labor,  next  to  raw  materials,  bears  the  highest  proportion 
of  the  total  cost,  being  29.29  per  cent  for  all  establishments.  Direct 
labor  in  Group  II,  part  operating  contracted,  and  in  Group  III,  all 
operating  contracted,  bears  a  higher  proportion  of  the  total  cost 
than  in  Group  I,  no  operating  contracted.  This  is  due,  in  a  measure, 
to  the  fact  tnat  the  contract  price  for  operating  includes  not  only 
the  direct  labor  paid  by  the  contractor,  but  his  indirect  labor  and 
factory  expense  as  weD. 

Indirect  labor  was  but  3.97  per  cent  of  the  total  manufacturing 
and  selling  expense. 

Factory  expense  also  shows  the  effect  of  the  contract  system  on 
the  distribution  of  costs.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  total  factory 
expense  decreases  in  proportion  to  the  extent  that  contract  labor  is 
employed,  although  tne  same  can  not  be  said  of  aU  the  items  imder 
factory  expense.  Fire  insurance,  an  exception,  shows  only  a  very 
small  variation  in  the  percentages,  owing  to  the  fact  that  manu- 
facturers employing  contract  labor  insure  themselves  against  loss 
from  fire  by  having  their  insurance  policies  cover  not  only  the  stock 
in  their  own  shops,  but  that  in  the  contract  shops  as  well. 

The  total  administrative  expense  does  not  show  a  great  variation 
in  the  costs  for  the  first  three  groups.  The  effect  of  the  contract 
system  is  not  so  marked  in  this  division  of  expenses  as  in  the  items 
of  labor  and  factory  expense. 

The  percentages  for  raw  materials  and  for  direct  labor  in  Table 
19  present  interesting  differences  between  establishments  manu- 
facturing low,  medium,  and  high-priced  clothing.  It  Vill  be  seen 
that  the  percentages  for  raw  materials  decrease  and  those  for 
direct  labor  increase,  as  the  factory  price  of  the  product  rises;  that 

Ltenal 

medium  or  high-grade  suit. 

An  examination  of  the  percentages  under  direct  labor  shows  that 
wages  increase  and  that  contract  work  decreases  in  importance  as 
the  factory  price  of  the  product  increases  in  value.  In  other  words, 
those  establishments  manufacturing  low-grade  suits  employ  more 
contract  labor  than  those  manufacturing  medium  or  high-grade  suits. 
Wages  increase  from  7.18  per  cent  in  Group  IV  (factory  price  under 
$8)  to  25.93  per  cent  in  Group  VI  (factory  price  $15  and  over),  and 
for  the  same  groups  the  item  paid  to  contractors  decreases  from 
20.98  to  7.77  per  cent,  respectively. 

The  percentages  for  indirect  labor  and  factory  expense  also  increase 
as  the  factory  price  of  the  product  increases.  Welfare  work  appears 
to  be  more  general  in  establishments  manufacturing  the  medium  and 
the  high-grade  suits  than  in  those  manufacturing  the  cheap  grades 
or  those  manufacturing  separate  trousers,  etc. 


a  person  buying  a  low -rrade  suit  would  get  relatively   more 
tenal  and  less  workmanship  for  his  money  than  one  buying  a 


11914°— 16- 


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70 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


J^ 


cost  and  profit  by  establishments. 


71 


In  the  classification  according  to  the  prices  of  the  products, 
administrative  expense  is  found  to  be  highest  in  Group  IV  and 
lowest  in  Group  \n[,  this  being  the  same  order  as  for  raw  materials, 
but  the  reverse  of  tne  other  principal  divisions  of  expense.  Salaries 
of  officials,  with  1.39  per  cent,  and  bad  debts,  with  1.30  per  cent,  in 
Group  IV  are  considerably  above  the  averages  for  all  estaolishments. 

The  variation  in  the  percentages  for  total  seUing  expense  from 
4.81  per  cent  in  Group  IV  (factory  price  under  $8)  to  8.86  per  cent 
in  Group  VI  (factory  price  $15  and  over)  is  due  principally  to  the 
differences  existing  in  the  percentages  for  salaries,  commissions,  and 
expense  of  salesmen,  and  for  advertising.  The  national  advertisers 
are  generally  found  among  the  manufacturers  of  medium  and  high- 
grade  clothing. 

Some  establishments  with  a  sufficient  working  capital  are  in  a 
position  to  discount  all  their  bUls  and  some  (those  purchasing  mate- 
rials in  large  quantities)  are  not  only  in  a  position  to  buy  at  lower 
prices,  but  to  obtain  special  discounts  as  well;  whereas  the  estab- 
lishments with  insufficient  working  capital  are  not  in  a  position  to 
discount  their  bills  nor  are  the  smaller  establishments  in  a  position 
to  obtain  special  discounts  and  special  prices.  The  influence  of 
these  factors  on  the  percentages  for  raw  materials  can  not  be  shown 
by  estabhshments  without  disclosing  their  identity. 

Chicago,  notwithstanding  higher  freight  rates  on  account  of  the 
distance  from  the  producing  centers  of  the  raw  materials,  has,  with 
47.37  per  cent,  the  lowest  percentage  of  cost  for  raw  materials,  and 
New  York  City,  with  54.50  per  cent,  the  highest  percentage. 

The  group,  Cleveland  ana  Milwaukee,  with  20.88  per  cent,  shows 
the  lowest  airect  labor  cost,  iand  Rochester,  with  32.48  per  cent,  the 
highest  direct  labor  cost.  If  the  total  direct  labor  and  the  total 
indirect  labor  be  combined,  Rochester  shows  the  highest  percentage 
of  cost,  followed  in  order  by  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  New  York  City, 
Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  Cleveland  and  Milwaukee. 

manufacturing  and  selling  cost,  by  establishments. 

Table  20,  on  page  72,  shows  percentages  for  the  items  of  costs  in 
detail  and  for  the  main  divisions  of  costs  by  individual  establishments 
arranged  in  the  order  of  their  manufacturmg  profits  from  the  highest 
to  the  lowest  profit,  and  of  their  manuf actiu-mg  losses  from  the  lowest 
to  the  highest  loss.  All  the  percentages  are  based  on  the  total  cost  of 
manufacturing  and  selling. 

For  good  reasons  an  establishment  may  have  larger  proportionate 
costs  for  certain  items  of  expense  than  another  establishment  or  than 
the  average  for  the  group  to  which  it  belongs.  This  is  somewhat 
dependent  on  the  quauty  of  the  goods  that  the  establishment  produces 
or  on  the  importance  tnat  some  manufacturers  give  to  various  items 
of  costs,  for  some  manufacturers  have  found  it  profitable  to  spend 
more  than  the  average  for  seUing — that  is,  to  pay  higher  salaries  or 
commissions  to  salesmen  of  exceptional  abihty  or  to  pay  out  large 
sums  for  advertising.  The  same  ratio  of  expenditure  for  all  items 
will  not  be  found  in  any  two  estabhshments,  but  if  the  percentages 
for  many  items  are  much  greater  than  the  average  of  similar  estab- 
lishments, the  profit  will  be  smaller  or  there  may  be  a  loss. 


A 


i^ 


The  total  cost  of  manufacture  and  selling  being  used  as  the  base, 
it  follows  that  all  items  of  cost,  expressed  m  percentages,  must  add 
to  100  per  cent,  but  just  what  the  relation  to  the  total  cost  each  item 
of  expense  should  bear  could  be  determined  only  in  case  an  establish- 
ment was  efficient  in  all  its  departments.  One  establishment  may 
pride  itself  upon  the  efficiency  of  its  sales  department  and  at  the 
same  time  have  inefficient  shops,  or  vice  versa;  or  another  establish- 
ment may  be  very  efficient  in  ouying  its  materials  and  inefficient  in 
other  departments. 

The  average  percentages  for  the  various  groups  (which  can  not  be 
considered  as  representative  of  a  model  factory,  because  a  model 
factory  should  be  better  than  an  average  factory)  will  afford  the  manu- 
facturer an  opportunity  to  compare  the  percentages  for  his  own 
estabhshment  with  the  average  percentages  for  the  groups  in  which 
his  establishment  is  found.  If  such  comparison  be  made  the  result 
will  show  which  items  of  cost  are  relatively  high. 

For  the  64  estabhshments  that  reported  data  there  are  large  varia- 
tions in  the  percentages  for  the  various  items  of  cost. 

Raw-material  cost  is  more  than  50  per  cent  of  the  total  cost  in  38 
estabhshments,  being  highest  in  estabhshment  No.  58,  with  64.79 
per  cent,  and  lowest  m  estabhshment  No.  7,  with  41.31  per  cent.  An 
enumeration  of  the  percentages  for  raw  materials  shows  that  there  are 
6  estabhshments  with  costs  between  60  and  65  per  cent,  16  between 
55  and  60  per  cent,  16  between  50  and  55  per  cent,  21  between  45  and 
50  per  cent,  and  5  between  40  and  45  per  cent.  The  causes  for  this 
vanation  are  as  follows:  (1)  The  quality  of  the  materials  used; 
(2)  waste  of  materials  resulting  from  cuttmg,  some  of  which  can  not 
be  avoided  but  which  can  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  efficient 
supervision  and  workmanship;  (3)  waste  resulting  from  cutting  cer- 
tam  materials — such  as  stripes — which  must  be  matched  in  the  finished 
product,  the  waste  being  greater  in  such  materials  than  in  plain  mate- 
rials that  require  no  matehing;  (4)  loss  of  materials  due  to  careless 
handling  in  tne  raw  stock  room  by  the  employees,  or  to  an  inefficient 
check  upon  the  raw  stock  taken  from  the  stock  room ;  (5)  the  average 
sizes  running  higher  in  one  estabhshment  than  another;  (6)  discounts; 
(7)  special  prices.  The  percentage  of  raw  material  depends,  of 
course,  also  upon  the  other  items  of  cost  having  a  higher  or  lower 
relative  proportion  to  the  total  cost  in  one  estabhshment  than  in 
another. 

Direct  labor,  next  to  raw  materials,  shows  the  largest  percentage  of 
the  total  cost,  for  6  establishments  show  costs  between  35  and  40  per 
cent,  20  between  30  and  35  per  cent,  29  between  25  and  30  per  cent,  7 
between  20  and  25  per  cent,  and  2  less  than  20  per  cent.  Of  the  64 
estabhshments,  30  are  above  and  34  are  below  the  average  direct-labor 
cost  of  29.29  per  cent.  Establishment  No.  43,  with  38.94  per  cent, 
shows  the  hignest  cost,  and  estabhshment  No.  1,  with  13  per  cent,  the 
lowest  cost. 


72 


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COST  AND   PROFIT  BY   ESTABLISHMENTS. 


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MEN  S   FACTOBT-MADE  CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


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COST   AND  FBOFII  BY    ESTABLISHMENTS. 


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76 


MEN  S  FACTOBY-MADE   CLOTHING  INDUSTET. 


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COST  AND  PBOFII  BY   ESIABLISHMENIS. 


77 


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men's  factoey-made  clothing  industry. 


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COST  AND  PBOFIT  BV   ESTABLISHMENItt. 


79 


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MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


*V       f\f' 


COST  AND   PROFIT  BY   ESTABLISHMENTS. 


81 


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11914*>— 16- 


V' 


82 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


r   T 


COST  AND   PROFIT  BY   ESTABLISHMENTS. 


83 


It  should  not  be  assumed  that  an  establishment  whose  proportion 
of  expenditure  for  labor  was  lower  than  that  of  other  estaolishments 
pays  its  employees  less  than  the  others.  On  the  contrary,  the  eam- 
mgs  of  individual  employees  might  even  be  greater  in  the  establish- 
ment with  a  low  percentage  of  iSbor  cost,  because  of  several  reasons: 
(a)  The  fact  that  the  employees  were  more  skilled  than  ordinary 
employees;  (b)  better  superintendence  or  superior  shop  arrange- 
ments enabled  them  to  turn  out  a  larger  product  per  worker  than 
could  be  done  by  workers  in  fac tones  less  efficiently  managed. 
Furthermore,  if  the  percentage  for  overhead  were  unusually  high,  it 
would  proportionately  decrease  the  percentage  of  labor  and  other 
expense,  without  necessarily  indicating  that  lower  wages  were  paid. 

Selling  expense,  the  next  most  important  item  of  cost,  varied  from 
15.21  per  cent  for  establishment  No.  11  to  1.64  per  cent  for  estab- 
hshment  No.  32.  Only  one  establishment  shows  a  total  selling 
expense  of  more  than  15  per  cent  of  the  total  cost,  19  establishments 
show  percentages  of  over  10  per  cent  but  less  than  15  per  cent,  and 
34  show  5  per  cent  or  more  but  less  than  10  per  cent,  and  10  show 
less  than  5  per  cent. 

Of  the  64  establishments,  10  show  no  expenditures  for  advertising, 
while  54  report  such  expenditures  ranging  from  two-hundred ths  of  1 
per  cent  to  5.04  per  cent  of  the  total  cost. 

Indirect  labor,  factory  expense,  and  administrative  expense  vary 
in  importance  in  the  different  estabhshments,  and  no  definite  state- 
ment can  be  made  as  to  which  of  the  three  bears  a  relatively  higher 
proportion  of  the  total  cost. 

In  the  discussion  of  Table  19  it  is  shown  what  effect  the  employ- 
ment of  contract  labor  has  upon  direct  labor,  indirect  labor,  and 
factory  expense,  and  this  factor  must  be  considered  in  comparing 
individual  establishments.  A  reference  to  the  details  under  direct 
labor  in  Table  20  will  show  whether  or  not  an  establishment  employs 
contract  labor  and  the  extent  of  such  employment.  An  examination 
of  the  individual  items  of  cost  imder  factory  expense  will  show  that 
only  23  establishments  report  expenditures  for  welfare  work.  If  any 
welfare  work  is  done  by  the  other  establishments  it  is  conducted  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  expenditures  are  not  chargeable  to  the  cost 
of  production. 

Another  item  of  cost  under  factory  expense  not  common  to  all  of 
the  estabhshments  is  that  of  taxes,  owing  to  the  fact  that  in  some 
States  manufacturers  are  exempt  from  taxation  except  on  their  real 
estate,  and  in  case  a  manufacturer  owns  real  estate  employed  in  his 
business  all  expenses  in  connection  with  such  property  are  eliminated 
from  the  costs  and  a  rental  charge  substitutea. 

The  percentage  of  bad  debts,  as  is  natural,  varies  greatly,  being 
highest  in  establishment  No.  57,  with  4.06  per  cent.  Establishment^ 
Nos.  26  and  27  show  no  losses  from  bad  deots  on  the  year's  business. 
It  requires  a  credit  man  of  unusuai  foresight  to  prevent  all  losses  from 
this  source.  Some  estabhshments  are  .so  anxious  to  dispose  of  their 
product  that  they  are  willing  to  assume  almost  any  risk  to  secure 
orders,  and  consequently  their  losses  are  out  of  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  their  business. 

Some  salesmen,  to  increase  their  commissions  and  to  prevent  their 
company  from  refusing  the  orders  of  certain  customers,  do  not  always 
inform  the  company  of  all  the  facts  that  they  may  learn  relating  to 


y 


^j 


% 


-^ 


\ 


the  financial  condition  of  such  customers,  which,  if  in  the  possession 
of  the  home  office,  would  result  in  the  rejection  of  orders.  Salesmen 
sometimes  sell  a  customer  more  than  ms  business  demands,  which 
may  not  only  result  in  a  cancellation  of  the  order  by  the  customer, 
but  may  force  the  customer  into  bankruptcj,  for  should  he  be  a  free 
buyer  in  other  lines  he  will  not  be  in  a  position  to  meet  his  bills  when 
they  become  due.  Salesmen  could  ana  should  be  of  great  assistance 
to  the  credit  man,  and  while  undoubtedly  many  establishments 
require  their  salesr  on  to  supply  additional  credit  information,  there 
are  some  estabhsi.ments  whose  losses  from  bad  debts  could  be 
reduced  if  their  salesmen  were  not  interested  solely  in  securing  orders 
regardless  of  the  ability  of  the  customer  to  pay  his  bills. 

TOTAL  DIBECT  AND  INDIRECT  LABOR. 

The  table  that  follows  resembles  Table  20,  in  that  it  shows,  by 
groups,  percentages  based  on  the  total  manufacturing  and  selling 
expense.  In  this  table,  however,  direct  labor,  indirect  Tabor  (except 
salaries  of  officials),  and  wages  under  selling  expense  are  combined; 
also,  separate  combinations  are  made  for  the  items  of  rent,  insurance 
(except  fire),  workmen's  compensation,  taxes,  and  salaries  of  office 
force  and  office  expense. 

Table  21. — Pebcentages  of  Averaqe  Costs,  bt  Specified  Items,  Based  on  thb 
Total  Manufactubino  and  Selling  Expense,  by  Gboups  of  Establishments. 


Items. 


Total  manufacturing  and  selling  ex- 
pense   

Raw  materials 

Labor 

Salaries  of  officials 

Salaries,  commission,  and  expense  of 

stflesmen 

Rent 

Power,  light,  beat 

Repairs 

Fii«  insurance 

Insurance,  except  fire 

Packing  cases,  etc 

Cartage,  freight,  out  ward 

Salaries  of  clerks  and  office  expense. .. 

Collection  expense 

Bad  debts , 

Taxes , 

Advertising , 

All  other  expenses 


All 
estab- 
lish- 
ments 
report- 
mg 
(64). 


Establishments 
ing— 


hav- 


Perct. 
100.00 


52.39 

32.85 

2.41 


5.01 

1.29 

.32 

.13 

.22 

.07 

.21 

32 

12 

.06 

.88 

.13 

1.25 

1.34 


No  op- 
erating 

con- 
tracted, 
Group 
1(12). 


Perct. 
100.00 


1 


50.89 

32.00 

2.66 

5.55 

1.46 

.35 

.23 

.23 

.14 

.28 

.28 

1.27 

.12 

.95 

.25 

1.59 

1.75 


Part 
oper- 
ating 
con- 
tracted, 
Group 
II  (30). 


Perct. 
100.00 


50.91 

33.96 

2.34 


All  op- 
erating 

con- 
tracted, 
Group 
m(22) 


Perct. 
100.00 


56.75 

30.90 

2.43 


Establishments  with 
factory  price  of  units— 


Under 

Group 
IV  (8T. 


Perct. 
100.00 


58.73 

30.33 

2.64 


5.01 

4.63 

3.27 

5.18 

1.34 

L04 

.99 

1.11 

.38 

.16 

.24 

.33 

.15 

.02 

.06 

.14 

.21 

.24 

.33 

.20 

.07 

.04 

.09 

.06 

.19 

.20 

.22 

.19 

.33 

.33 

.23 

.33 

1.14 

.96 

.90 

1.09 

.05 

.06 

.06 

.07 

.78 

1.06 

1.30 

.90 

.13 

.01 

.11 

.14 

1.60 

.25 

.01 

1.45 

L41 

.02 

.49 

1.37 

S8and 
imder 
$15, 
Group 
V  (37). 


Per  a. 
100.00 


52.88 

32.12 

2.44 


S15 

and 

over. 

Group 

VI  (11), 


Perct. 
100.00 


46.68 

38.09 

2.15 

4.76 

1.92 

.33 

.17 

.26 

.12 

.25 

.28 

1.19 

.05 

.65 

.11 

1.39 

1.60 


Estab- 
lish- 
ments 
making 
sepa- 
rate 
trou- 
sers, 
etc., 
Group 
Vn(l). 


Perct. 
100.00 


65.87 

29.01 

2.67 

6.72 

1.51 
.25 
.05 
.24 
.04 
.26 
.48 

L35 
.07 
.87 
.05 
.21 

1.35 


84 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


Taple  21. — ^Pbrcentages  op  Average  Costs,  by  Specified  Items,  Based  on  the 
Total  Manufacturinq  and  Selling  Expense,  by  Groups  of  Establishments — 
Continued. 


Establishments  located  in— 

Items. 

Chicago, 

Group 

VIII  (4). 

Phila. 

delphia, 

Group 

IX  (7). 

aeve- 
landand 
Milwau- 
kee, 
Group  X 
(4). 

Roches- 
ter, 
Group 
XI  (7). 

Balti- 
more, 
Group 
XII  (6). 

New 
York 
City, 
Group 
Xllf 
(30). 

Cincin- 
nati, 
Group 

XIV  (6). 

Total  numufactortng  and  sell- 
ine  exoense 

PercerU. 
100.00 

Per  cent. 
100.00 

Percent. 
100.00 

Percent. 
100.00 

Percent. 
100.00 

Per  cent. 
100.00 

Percent. 
100.00 

Raw  materials 

47.37 

35.17 

2.08 

5.01 
1.59 
.52 
.11 
.21 
.03 
.14 
.31 

1.26 

.05 

.48 

.18 

3.18 

2.31 

54.15 

29. 45 

3.06 

5.66 
1.23 
.50 
.06 
.38 
.06 
.20 
.29 

1.23 
.17 

1.80 
.02 
.89 
.85 

53.48 

26.87 
3.75 

5.80 
.89 
.54 
.53 
.23 
.09 
.17 
.56 

1.17 

.09 

.68 

.46 

3.04 

1.65 

t 

51.24 

35.36 

2.19 

4.49 
L03 
.35 
.12 
.16 
.07 
.22 
.33 

.72 
.03 
.54 
.13 
1.53 
1.49 

51.89 

33.01 

1.82 

5.89 
1.05 
.34 
.16 
.18 
.09 
.20 
.21 

1.35 
.33 

L34 
.20 

.84 
1.30 

54.50 

32.52 

2.48 

4.55 
1.41 
.15 
.06 
.24 
.10 
.24 
.32 

1.04 
.04 
.91 
.01 
.37 

1.06 

52.32 

Labor 

32.85 

Salaries  of  officials 

2.39 

Salaries,  oommLssion,  and  ex- 
pense of  salesmen 

5.86 

R«lt 

1.48 

Power.  I  ieht.  heat 

.28 

Repairs 

.11 

Fire  insurance 

.22 

Insurance .  exceot  fire 

.03 

Packine  cases,  etc 

.23 

Cartage,  freight ,  outward 

Salaries  of  clerks  and  office  ex- 
pense  

.25 
1.64 

C(Mlection  exnense 

.09 

Bad  debts 

L21 

Taxes 

.17 

Ad  vertisinn 

.27 

All  other  expenses 

.60 

Establishments  with  net  sales  of— 


Items. 


Total  manufacturing  and  selling  expense. 


Raw  materials 

Labor 

Salaries  of  officials 

Salaries,  commission,  and  expense  of  salesmen. 

Rent 

Power,  light,  heat 

Repairs - 

Fire  insurance 

Insurance,  except  fire 

Pack  ing  cases  ,etc 

Cartage ,  freight ,  outward. 

Salaries  of  clerks  and  office  expense 

Collection  expense 

Bad  debts 

Taxes 

Advertising 

All  otho*  expenses 


Under 
$500,000, 

Group 
XV  (27). 


Percent. 
100.00 


53.23 

30.93 

3.10 

5.42 

1.66 

.35 

.08 

.36 

.08 

.21 

.26 

L35 

.09 

L53 

.08 

.33 

.94 


1500,000 
and  under 
$1,000,000, 

Group 
XVI  (14). 


Percent. 
100.00 


52.70 

33.45 

2.78 

4.53 

1.69 

.26 

.11 

.30 

.14 

.27 

.81 

L20 

.04 

.99 

.06 

.27 

.90 


$1,000,000 
and  under 
$2,000,000, 

Group 
XVII  (14). 


Percent. 
100.00 


50.94 

34.07 

1.91 

5.34 

1.38 

.31 

.15 

.20 

.09 

.22 

.28 

1.03 

.08 

.81 

.16 

1.60 

1.43 


$2,000,000 
and  over, 

Group 
XVIII  (9). 


Percent. 
100.00 


53.08 

32.36 

2.43 

4.79 

.96 

.33 

.15 

.16 

.03 

.18 

.38 

1.07 

.06 

.69 

.14 

1.63 

1.56 


Table  22,  the  figures  for  which  were  obtained  from  the  Bureau  of 
the  Census,  shows  that  in  1909  the  total  cost  of  labor,  made  up  of 
salaries  and  wages,  25.71  and  contract  work,  9.31  per  cent,  was  35.02 
per  cent  of  the  total  cost.  The  table  gives  the  amounts  and  percent- 
ages of  specified  items  of  expense  and  the  total  value  of  products 
in  the  men's  clothing  industry  in  the  United  States,  for  the  year  1909. 


t"^f» 


M 


COST  AND  PROFIT  BY  ESTABLISHMENTS. 


85 


Table  22. — Amounts  and  Percentages  of  Specified  Items  of  Expense  for  the 
Men's  Clothing  Industry  in  the  United  States,  as  Reported  by  the  Census 
OP  Manufactures.  1909. 

[Data  from  the  records  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census.] 


Items  of  expense. 

Amonnt. 

Per  cent. 

Items  of  expense. 

Amount. 

Per  cent. 

Salaries  and  wages: 

Officers 

$3,180,434 

3,572,338 
16,329,365 
89,644,921 

0.73 

.81 

3.72 

20.45 

Miscellaneous: 

Rent  of  factory 

Taxes 

$5,391,588 
526,128 

26,513,817 
40,807,991 

1.23 

Superintendents  and 

mfttifWrArs      . 

.12 

Rent  of  offices  and 
sundries 

Qo-ks  and  salesmen. . . 
Wage  earners 

6.04 

Contract  work 

Total 

9.31 

Total 

112,727,058 

25.71 

73,239,024 

16.70 

Materials: 

249,440,553 
1,789,297 
1,292,717 

56.89 
.41 
.29 

Total  cost 

438,488,649 

100.00 

Value  of  nr oducts. ........ 

All  except  fuel  and 

mill  supplies 

Fuel  and  power 

Freight 

485,677,493 

Total 

252,522,567 

57.59 

SALES  AND  PEOFITS  IN  PEKVIOUS  YEARS. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  obtain  from  as  many  estabhshments  as 
possible  the  amount  of  their  net  sales  not  only  for  their  last  business 
year  but  also  for  previous  years.  The  object  was  to  compare  the  net 
sales  in  previous  years  with  those  of  the  fast  year.  The  percentages 
of  sales  m  years  previous  to  1914,  based  on  the  sales  in  that  year,  are 
shown,  so  far  as  data  were  obtained,  in  the  following  table: 

Table  23.— Percentages  of  Net  Sales  of  Establishments  During  Years  Prior 
to  1914,  Based  on  Net  Sales  During  That  Year. 


Establishments. 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

No  1  

59.02 

112.01 

96.97 

89.76 
137.32 
104.33 
175.66 

89.01 
114.65 

101.25 
129.92 

96.70 
142.07 

91.24 
109.50 

41.79 
116.54 
124.57 

82.50 

82.72 

119.14 

94.86 

128.75 

91.48 

93.26 

55.62 

116.35 

115.44 

78.02 

109.81 

109.81 

75.79 

94.03 

103.90 

118.79 

98.30 

126.42 

93.74 

99.14 

74.46 

108.68 

110.97 

94.29 

100.58 

82.49 

73.68 

91.32 

65.41 

95.94 

89.16 

65.98 

118.00 

121.42 

133.41 
118.90 
110.76 
153.85 
117.17 
113.15 

92.20 
116.43 
112.83 

94.12 

97.96 
110.28 

99.49 
101.07 

95.30 
114. 71 
102.96 

94.33 
114.78 

99.73 
118.82 
112.38 
120.29 
112.90 

100.00 

No.  11 

100.00 

No.  14 

100.00 

No  15 

100.00 

^ 

No  30        

100.00 

No  34  .             

100.00 

No  12 

100.00 

w 

No  38 

100.00 

Ik 

No  39 

100.00 

ip 

No  46 

100.00 

If 

No  7           

100.00 

• 

No.  13 

100.00 

No  55 

100.00 

No.  63  

100.00 

No  19                        .          

100.00 

No  25 

100.00 

No  42 

100.00 

No.  47 

100.00 

No  49 

100.00 

No  59  

100.00 

No  18 

100.00 

No.  29                     

100.00 

No.  37 

100.00 

No.  45  

100.00 

Average,  3  establishments 

90.54 

110.84 
109.26 

105.97 
104.14 
100.21 

97.03 
94.79 
96.80 
98.08 

98.88 
97.56 
99.68 
99.00 
96.82 

102.69 
108.96 
109.83 
109.33 
109.13 
111.39 

100.00 

A veraee.  6  establishments 

100.00 

Average.  10  establishments 

100.00 

Averaee.  14  establishments 

100.00 

Average.  20  establishments 

100.00 

A  veraee.  24  establishments 

100.00 

1 

-/ 

• 

\ 


f 


86 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTBY. 


The  average  net  sales  of  the  establishments  that  furnished  data 
for  years  previous  to  1914  were  less  in  that  year  than  in  1909, 1910,  or 
1913,  but  larger  than  in  1908,  1911,  or  1912. 

The  percentages  of  profit  of  these  establishments  based  on  their 
net  sales  during  each  year  from  1908  to  1914  appear  in  the  following 
table: 

Table  24.— Percentages  of  Final  Profit  Based  on  Net  Sales  of  Establish- 
ments Each  Year  from  1908  to  1914. 


-Establishments. 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

No  1                

4.42 

5.34 

.09 

11.09 
8.73 
1.79 
7.29 
6.67 
2.60 

8.93 
2.92 

«1.63 
1.93 
2.32 
1.53 
5.17 

11.25 
9.89 
6.53 

2.54 
4.15 

1.47 
0  2.28 
3.60 
l.l(k 
7.70 
9.64 
5.81 
a2.28 
3.74 
4.04 
6.37 
1.54 

5.16 
7.00 
4.10 
.96 
3.40 
3.82 
9.07 

iao8 

5.83 
7.78 
1.72 
•  4.34 
5.70 
4.53 
4.54 
6.07 
9.89 
b.51 
9.66 
6.00 

13.14 
7.90 
4.97 
6.57 

01.72 
4.04 
6.60 
6.13 
3.56 
6.89 

a5.96 
6.73 
3.96 
1.83 
5.19 
6.57 
7.63 
6.58 
6.07 
6.98 
2.01 
1.84 
2.08 
2.32 

9.67 

No  11    

4.90 

No  14        

1.21 

No  15              

2.84 

No  30       

3.25 

No  34        

2.28 

No  12                          

6.73 

No  38                          

6.76 

No  39               

l.OB 

No  46               

3.66 

No  7               

3.08 

No  13                     

1.77 

No  55          

5.36 

No  63              

1.56 

No  19                 

6.28 

No  25                      

7.56 

No  42                                     

10.39 

No  47                                 

.  ...... 

8.28 

No  49                                 

.39 

No  59                    — -• 

2.94 

No  18                                     

O1.04 

No  29                        

al.83 

No  37                             

2.40 

No  45                             

4.71 

A vetap^  3 establishments ...•.•...•.. 

4.30 

9.06 
6.87 

3.12 
2.45 
6.28 

3.64 
2.45 
5.13 
4.56 

6.93 
4.95 
6.80 
6.04 
6.75 

8.33 
5.35 
5.60 
4.62 
5.60 
5.21 

4.21 

Averaee  6 establishments 

3.08 

A  veraw  10  establishments 

3.94 

Aver<ipe  14  establishments 

3.67 

A vArape  20 establishmexits  ...•.•.••-•• 

5.42 

A v^a^A  24 establishments ......•••••• 

4.92 

•  Loss. 


As  shown  by  this  table,  the  average  percentages  of  profit  in  1914 
were  smaller  than  in  1912  or  1913,  ana  in  some  cases  were  smaller  and 
in  other  cases  larger  than  during  the  years  1908  to  1911. 


-1  ^  ^ 


CHAPTER  III. 
COST  AFD  PEOFIT  BY  SPECIFIED  XJiriTS. 

The  manufacturers  that  furnished  data  in  regard  to  their  total 

Production  and  net  sales  for  a  year  were  requested  also  to  supply 
ata  in  regard  to  the  cost  of  production  of  specific  styles  of  suits, 
overcoats,  and  separate  trousers.  Each  was  requested  to  give  details 
about  units  of  different  grades,  including  representative  styles  that 
constituted  the  bulk  of  the  sales  for  the  year.  In  each  case  the  unit 
of  cost  is  one  three-piece  suit,  a  single  overcoat,  or  a  pair  of  trousers. 
Forty-eight  establishments  furnished  data  regarding  210  units. 

Table  25  shows,  by  grades  and  cities,  the  number  of  establish- 
ments supplying  imit  data,  and  the  nimiber  of  styles  reported. 

Table  25.— Number  of  Establishments  Reporting  Data  Regarding  Units,  and 

Number  of  Styles  Reported. 


Cities,  garments,  and  grades. 

Estab- 
lishments 
report- 
mg. 

Styles 
reported. 

Cities,  garments,  and  grades. 

Estab- 
lishments 
report- 
ing. 

Styles 
repwted 

Three-piece  suits  with  gross 
selling  price  of— 
Under  $8— 

New  York  City 

Philftdplnhia 

10 
3 

1 

2 

18 
5 
3 
5 

4 

5 

3 
5 

4 
1 
2 

3 

4 

11 
4 

1 

2 

S2 
• 

6 

15 

8 

13 

6 
14 

16 
1 
3 

3 
4 

Overcoats  with  gross  selling 
price  of—  Continued. 
Under  $8- 

Pbiiadelnhia ......... 

1 

1 

1 

9 
2 
2 
3 
3 

4 

3 
3 
2 
1 

5 
1 

3 

1 

Baltimore 

1 

Baltimore 

Cincinnati ,  Cleveland, 

and  Milwaukee 

$8  and  under  $15 — 

New  York  City 

Rochester 

Cincinnati.Cleveland, 

and  Milwaukee 

S8  and  under  $15— 

New  York  City 

RorhfKt^ 

1 

13 
2 

Chicago 

2 

Chicftco             --- 

Philadelphia 

4 

PhiladelDhk 

Baltimore 

4 

Baltimore 

Cincimiati,  Cleveland, 

and  Milwaukee 

$15  and  over- 
New  York  City 

Rochester............ 

Cincinnati,CleveIand, 

and  Milwaukee 

$15  and  over- 
New  York  City 

RnphflstAr 

e 

3 
3 

Chicago 

3 

Chica«)               

Baltimore 

1 

Philadelphia 

Separate  trousers  with  gross 
selling  price  of— 
Under  $2.76— 

New  York  City 

Philadelphia 

Baltimore 

Cincinnati ,  Cleveland, 

and  Milwaukee 

OT«rcoats  with  gross  selling 
mice  of— 
Under  $*- 

New  York  City 

10 

1 

$2.75  and  over- 
New  York  City 

7 

The  data  relating  to  the  cost  of  manufacturing  the  specified  units 
submitted  are  presented  in  the  following  series  of  tables,  numbered 
26  to  36,  inclusive. 

COST  AND  PROFIT  OF  UNITS  SOLD  TO  SETAILEBS. 

Table  26  shows  the  principal  items  of  cost  and  the  manufacturing 
profit  or  loss  for  different  kinds  of  garments  and  for  various  styles 
of  the  same  kind.    The  data  for  each  separate  group  are  arranged 

87 


s 


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idfe 


;ssMm 


88 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


according  to  the  gross  selling  price  to  the  retailer,  the  styles  with  the 
highest  prices  being  entered  nrst.  Where  there  are  data  for  two  or 
more  styles  in  the  same  group,  with  the  samegross  price,  the  style 
with  the  highest  net  price  is  entered  first.  Wnere,  nowever,  there 
are  data  for  two  or  more  styles  with  the  same  gross  and  net  prices, 
they  are  entered  according  to  the  amount  of  profit,  the  unit  show- 
ing the  greatest  amount  of  profit  being  entered  first. 

The  difference  between  tne  gross  selling  price  and  the  net  price, 
as  shown  in  the  table,  was  the  usual  discount  allowed  by  the  manu- 
facturer to  his  customers.  This  discount  varied  from  2  to  10  per 
cent,  according  to  the  establishment  and  class  of  trade,  and  was 
larger  than  the  discount  actually  taken. 

In  each  case  the  usual  price  at  which  the  unit  is  retailed  is  ako 
given.  These  figures  were  obtained  from  the  manufacturer  and  can 
not  be  considered  absolutely  accurate.  However,  they  tend  to  show 
in  a  general  way  at  what  price  the  garments  are  sold  to  the  consum- 
ing public.  The  manufacturer  usually  knows  what  his  customer  can 
get  for  a  certain  garment.  These  retail  prices  are  the  usual  prices 
at  which  the  garments  are  ordinarily  sold  when  first  put  on  sale  and 
not  the  prices  during  reduction  sales. 

The  manufacturer  estimates  the  cost  of  making  a  style  as  closely 
as  possible  when  samples  of  the  style  are  made.  After  the  first  lot 
of  any  style  has  been  produced  the  manufacturer  knows  the  quantity 
of  materials  entering  into  the  unit  and  can  therefore  figure  the  cost 
with  a  degree  of  accuracy. 

The  cost  of  direct  labor  in  plants  where  the  employees  are  piece 
workers  is  known  definitely,  as  is  the  case  also  when  the  product  is 
sent  to  be  made  up  in  contract  shops,  the  contractor  receiving  a 
stipulated  piece-rate  price.  In  establishments  where  the  employees 
are  time  workers,  the  determination  of  the  labor  cost  is  more  difficult 
and  requires  a  good  deal  of  calculation.  In  this  industry  the  cost  of 
labor  by  time  workers  is  usually  determined  by  the  quantity  method, 
i.  e.,  dividing  the  amount  of  pay  by  the  number  of  suits  or  gar- 
ments produced. 

The  salaries  of  active  officers  or  partners  or  the  amount  that  indi- 
vidual owners  would  have  paid  for  services  that  they  themselves 
performed  were  entered  under  indirect  labor,  or  administrative  or 
seUing  expense,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  performed. 

The  ''overhead"  charges  on  all  units  specified  in  this  report  were 
computed  according  to  a  uniform  method  which  is  explained  under 
the  subhead  "The  dual  method,"  in  a  section  of  the  report  headed 
** Simplified  cost  accounting"  (p.  223). 

The  costs  of  materials  of  the  units  specified  in  the  tables  were 
based  on  the  cost  and  prices  of  materials  during  the  summer  and  fall 
of  1914  for  spring  goods  and  during  the  winter  and  spring  of  1914-15 
for  winter  goods. 

Table  26,  which  follows,  shows  the  cost  of  production,  selling  price, 
and  profit  or  loss,  per  garment  sold  to  retailers,  for  the  210  styles 
for  which  data  were  secured. 


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for  which  the  elements  of  cost  and  profit  are  shown  in  Table  26. 
The  first  part  of  the  table  gives  a  detailed  description  of  the  coats 
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men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


UNITS  SOLD  AT  A  PSOFIT  AND  AT  A  LOSS. 


^     7T 


COST   AND  PROFIT  BY   SPECIFIED  UNITS. 


107 


Table  28,  which  follows,  shows  the  number  and  percentage  of  units 
of  different  garments,  for  which  data  are  given  in  Table  26,  sold  at  a 
profit  and  the  number  and  percentage  sold  at  a  loss: 

Table  28. — Number  op  Units  Reported,  and  Number  Sold  at  a  Propit  and 
AT  A  Loss,  Classipied  According  to  Kinds  op  Garments. 


Units  reported. 

Kinds. 

Number 
of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Number 

of 
styles. 

Sold  at  a  profit. 

Sold  at 

a  loss. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Three-piere  suits: 

Under  $8 

14 
39 
18 

18 
83 
43 

9 
63 
37 

50.00 
75.90 
86.06 

9 

20 
6 

SO.  00 

$8  to  $15 

24.10 

$15  and  over 

13.95 

Total 

43 

144 

109 

75.60 

35 

24.31 

Overooats: 

Under  $8 

7 

28 

9 

7 
31 
10 

4 

20 

7 

67.14 
64.52 
70.00 

8 

11 

8 

42.86 

$8  to  $15 

35.48 

$15  and  over 

30.00 

Total 

26 

48 

31 

64.58 

17 

35.42 

Separate  troa«Jers: 

Under  $2.75 

6 
3 

11 
7 

10 
7 

90.91 
100.00 

1 

9.00 

S2.75  and  over 

Total 

6 

18 

17 

94.44 

1 

S.S6 

Grand  total 

48 

210 

157 

74.76 

S3 

25.24 

Of  the  35  units  sold  at  a  loss,  in  the  group  for  suits,  only  3  were 
made  by  an  establishment  that  showed  a  manufacturing  and  final 
loss  on  its  year's  business;  and  6  were  made  in  2  establishments  1 
of  which  showed  a  manufacturing  profit,  1  a  manufacturing  loss, 
and  both  final  losses  on  their  year  s  business. 

Of  the  17  overcoats  selling  at  a  loss,  1  was  made  in  an  establish- 
ment showing  manufacturing  and  final  losses;  3  were  made  in  2 
establishments  with  manufacturing  profits  and  final  losses,  and  3 
were  made  in  2  establishments  shewing  manufacturing  losses  and  final 
profits. 

The  number  and  pre  portion  of  the  210  units  sold  at  a  profit  or  at 
a  loss  by  estabjishmcmts  baring  a  manufacturing  profit  or  loss  on 
th*^  ir  year's  business  are  shown  in  Table  29. 

Table  29. — Total  Number  op  Units  Reported  and  Per  Cent  op  Units  Sold 
AT  A  Profit  and  at  a  Loss,  According  to  Establishments  Showing  a  Propit 
OR  Loss  on  Year's  Business. 


Units  reported  by — 

Number 
of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Total 
number 

units 
reported. 

Units  sold  at  a 
profit. 

Units  sold  at  a 
loss. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Establishments  showing  a  profit  on  year's 
business              

43 
5 

183 
27 

142 
15 

77.60 
S5.S6 

41 
12 

22.41 

Establishments  showing  a  loss  on  year's 
business 

44.44 

All  establishments  reporting 

48 

210 

157 

74.76 

63 

25.24 

) 

•r .  -^ 


-k 


The  losses  on  some  styles,  by  establishments  shown  in  the  preceding 
table  as  having  made  profits  on  their  year's  business,  may  be  explained 
on  several  grounds.  In  the  first  place,  profits  on  the  year's  business 
may  be  due  to  increased  value  of  raw  materials  on  hand  at  the  close 
of  the  year.  Secondly,  some  establishments  knowing  accurately 
what  a  certain  style  costs,  will  sell  it  on  a  small  margin  of  profit, 
or  even  at  a  loss,  n)r  the  purpose  of  attracting  customers  to  buy  more 
profitable  styles.  An  estabhshment  may  find  it  necessary  to  carry  a 
complete  line  of  styles  in  order  to  meet  the  demands  of  its  customers 
and  to  hold  its  trade,  and  may  consider  it  good  business  pohcy  to  sell 
old  or  standard  styles,  at  or  below  cost,  to  customers  who  will  buy 
other  lines  on  which  a  good  profit  is  reahzed.  There  are,  however, 
a  number  of  establishments  which  have  such  crude  systems  for 
computing  their  "overhead"  charges  that  they  do  not  know  exactly 
how  much  their  profit  or  loss  is  on  certain  styles.  Such  unsystematic 
estabUshments  may  continue  for  a  long  time  to  sell  particular  styles 
of  garments  at  a  loss  without  knowing  it.  These  estabhshment-s 
frequently  sell  standard  styles  at  prices  at  which  the  concerns  with 
accurate  cost-accounting  systems  can  not  do  business  profitably. 
The  latter  are,  therefore,  practically  forced  to  sell'some  of  their  popular 
styles  below  cost,  hoping  to  make  up  on  others. 

COST  AND  PEOFIT  BY  GEADES  OP  QAEMENTS. 

Table  30,  compiled  from  Table  26,  shows  the  cost  items  and  the 

Srofit  on  high,  medium,  and  low  grades  of  suits  and  overcoats,  and 
igh  and  low  grades  of  separate  trousers. 

Table  30.— Comparative  Average  Costs  and  Manufacturing  Profits  on  Low, 
Medium,  and  High  Priced  Suits  and  Overcoats  and  Low  and  High  Priced 
Trousers,  Based  on  the  Average  Net  Price  Per  Unit  Sold  to  Retailers. 

[NoTK.— The  figures  in  the  box  headings  show  the  range  of  gross  prices.] 

THREE-PIECE  SUITS. 


Items. 

Under  $8, 
18  styles. 

$8  to  S15, 
83  styles. 

$15  and 

over, 

43  styles. 

Under  $8, 
18  styles. 

$8  to  $15, 
83  styles. 

$15  and 

over, 

43  styles. 

Average  net  price  per  unit 

$6.65 

$10.52 

$16.54 

Per  cent. 
100.00 

Per  cent. 
100.00 

Per  cent. 
100.00 

NAt  (YMt  of  all  materials  

3.74 

1.85 

.32 

.73 

5.41 

2.93 

.59 

1.26 

7.73 
4.59 
1.11 
2.00 

56.27 

27.82 

4.86 

10.90 

51.37 

27.87 

5.62 

11.94 

46.76 

Diract  labor          

27.72 

TnHirApt  labor  and  factorv  exoense • 

6.71 

Administrative  and  selling  expense 

12.09 

» 

Total  cost 

6.64 

10.19 

15.43 

99.85 

96.80 

93.28 

Manufacturing  profit 

.01              .33 

1.11 

.15 

3.20 

6.72 

OVERCOATS. 

Items. 

Under  $8, 
7  styles. 

$8  to  $15, 
31  styles. 

$15  and 

over, 

10  styles. 

Under  $8, 
7  styles. 

$8  to  $15, 
31  styles. 

$15  and 

over, 

10  styles. 

Average  net  price  per  unit 

$7.14 

$10.89 

$15.55 

Percent. 
100.00 

Per  cent. 
100.00 

Percent. 
100.00 

NAt  mMt nf  all  materials  .  ................ 

4.00 

L70 

.35 

.76 

5.72 

2.60 

.64 

1.30 

7.78 
4.12 
1.06 
2.03 

56.09 

23.74 

4.92 

10.68 

52.54 

23.83 

5.84 

12.01 

50.02 

DirM't  labor 

26.50 

TiiHirAr>t  Ifthnr  And  factorv  exoense..... . . . . 

6.80 

Administrative  and  selling  expense 

13.05 

Total  cost 

6.81 

10.26 

14  99 

95.43 

94.22 

96.37 

.33 

.63 

.56 

4.57 

6.78 

3.63 

{ 


108 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


Ta^lb  30. — Comparative  Averaqb  Costs  and  Manupacturino  Profits  on  Low, 
Medium,  and  High  Priced  Suits  and  Overcoats  and  Low  and  High  Priced 
Trousers,  Based  on  the  Averaqb  Net  Pricb  Per  Unit  Sold  to  Retailbrb — 
Continued. 

SEPARATE  TROUSERS. 


Items. 

Under 

•2.75, 

11  styles. 

12.75  and 

over, 
7  styles. 

Under 

•2.75, 

11  styles. 

t2.75and 

over, 
7  styles. 

A  verage  net  price  per  unit 

tl.87 

13.45 

Percent. 
100.00 

Percent. 
100.00 

K«t  nnst  nt  f^]\  inatArials          ..,....,.    

.99 
.46 
.09 
.22 

2.07 
.70 
.18 
.27 

53.05 

24.57 

4.77 

11.83 

59.97 

Direct  labor 

20.25 

Indirect  labor  and  lactory  expense 

5.10 

Administrative  and  selling  expense 

7.96 

Total  cost 

1.76 

3.22 

94.22 

93.28 

Mftniiffv^turinp  profit  .....     .........  t ..................... .   . . 

.11 

.23 

6.78 

6.72 

As  shown  by  the  table,  the  percentage  of  profit  on  the  three-piece 
suits  for  which  cost  data  were  secured  averaeed  0.15  per  cent  on  the 
low-priced  suits,  3.20  on  the  medium-pricea  suits,  and  6.72  on  the 
high  priced  suits.  The  proportionate  cost  for  materials  decreased 
from  the  low  to  the  high  priced  suits,  the  proportion  for  indirect 
labor  and  factory  expense  and  for  administration  and  selling  expense 
increased  from  the  low  to  the  high  priced  suits,  while  the  propor- 
tionate cost  for  direct  labor  was  nearly  uniform. 

The  percentage  of  profit  on  the  overcoats  for  which  data  were 
secured  averaged  4.57  on  the  low-priced  garments,  5.78  on  the 
medium-pricea  garments,  and  3.63  on  the  high-priced  garments. 
The  proportionate  cost  for  materials  decreased  from  the  low  to  the 
high  priced  garments,  the  proportion  for  indirect  labor  and  factory 
expense  and  for  administrative  and  seUing  expense  increased  from 
the  low  to  the  high  priced  garments,  while  the  proportion  for  direct 
labor  was  more  in  the  case  of  the  high-priced  garments  than  in  the 
case  either  of  low  or  medium  priced  garments. 

Table  31  is  similar  to  Table  30  except  that  the  items  of  net 
selling  price  and  of  profit  are  omitted,  and  the  percentage  of  the 
items  of  cost  of  production  is  based  on  the  total  manufacturing  and 
selling  expense. 

Table  31. — Comparative  Average  Costs  op  Low,  Medium,  and  High  Priced 
Suits  and  Overcoats,  and  Low  and  High  Priced  Trousers,  Based  on  the 
Average  Total  Cost  Per  Unit  Sold  to  Retailers. 

[Note.— The  figures  in  the  box  headings  show  the  range  of  gross  prices.) 

THREE-PIECE  SUITS. 


Items. 


Average  total  cost  p«r  unit 

Net  cost  of  all  materials 

Direct  labw 

Indirect  lalxv  and  factory  expense. . . 
AdminiBtrative  and  sailing  expense.. 


Under 

S8. 
18  styles. 


$6.64 


3.74 

1.85 

.32 

.73 


$8  to 

$15, 

83  styles. 


$10. 19 


5.41 

2.03 

.59 

1.26 


$15  and 

ovw, 

43  styles. 


$15.43 


7.73 
4.59 
1.11 
2.00 


Under 

$8, 

18  styles. 


Percent. 
100.00 


56.35 

27.87 

4.86 

10.92 


$8  to 

$15, 

83  styles. 


Percent. 
100.00 


53.07 

28.80 

5.80 

12.33 


$15  and 

over, 

43  styles. 


Percent. 
100.00 


50.13 

29.72 

7.19 

12.96 


\ 


7   / 


/^ 


k. 


-     % 


^& 


COST   AND   PROFIT  BY   SPECIFIED   UNITS. 


109 


Table  31. — ^Comparative  Average  Costs  op  Low,  Medium,  and  High  Priced 
Suits  and  Overcoats,  and  Low  and  High  Priced  Trousers,  Based  on  the 
Average  Total  Cost,  Per  Unit  Sold  to  Retailers — Continued. 


OVERCOATS. 


Items. 

Under 

$8. 
7  styles. 

$8  to 

$15. 

31  styles. 

$15  and 

over, 

10  styles. 

Under 
7  styles. 

$8  to 

$15, 

31  styles. 

$15  and 

over, 

10  styles. 

Awace  total  cost  oer  unit................ 

$6.81 

$10.26 

$14.99 

Percent. 
100.00 

Per  cent. 
100.00 

Percent. 
lOU.OO 

Net  cost  of  all  materials 

4.00 

1.70 

.35 

.76 

5.72 

2.60 

.64 

1.30 

7.78 
4.12 
1.06 
2.03 

58.78 

24.88 

5.15 

11.19 

65.77 

25.29 

6.20 

12.74 

51.91 

Direct  labor 

27.50 

Indirect  labor  and  factory  expense 

Administrative  and  selling  expense 

7.05 
13.54 

SEPARATE  TROUSERS. 


Items. 


Average  total  cost  per  unit 

Net  cost  of  all  materials 

Direct  labor 

Indirect  labor  and  factory  expense . 
Administrative  and  selling  expense 


$1.50  to 

$2.75, 

11  Styles. 


$1.76 


.99 
.46 
.09 
.22 


$2.75  to 

$5 
7  styles. 


$3.22 


J.  07 
.70 
.18 
.27 


$1.50  to 

$2.75, 

11  styles. 


Percent. 
100.00 


56.31 

26.08 

5.05 

12.56 


$2.75  to 

$5 
7  styles. 


Percent. 
100.00 


64.29 

21.71 

5.46 

8.54 


The  variations  in  this  table  without  an  exception  agree  with  the 
preceding  table  and  cleariy  show  decreases  in  the  percentages  of 
cost  of  materials  from  the  low  to  the  high  grades,  and  increases  in  the 
percentages  of  cost  of  direct  labor.  These  facts  are  shown  for  the 
groups  of  suits  and  overcoats. 

For  the  group  of  separate  trousers  the  percentages  of  material  cost 
increase  from  tne  low  to  the  high  and  the  percentages  of  direct  labor 
cost  decrease. 

COST  OF  MATERIALS  IN  UNITS. 

Table  32,  which  follows,  shows  in  detail  the  cost  of  the  different 
materials  used  in  the  garments,  for  which  the  items  of  cost  and  profit 
are  shown  in  Table  26.  In  this  table  the  establishments  are  eiven 
in  numerical  sequence,  and  the  styles  of  each  establishment  in  alpha- 
betical order.  The  figures  in  the  column  showing  the  total  net  cost 
of  all  materials  used  in  the  imit  agree  with  the  figures  for  the  same 
units  in  Table  26.  Where  no  amount  is  entered  for  freight  the  mate- 
rials are  delivered  free  to  the  manufacturer. 


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men's  factoby-made  clothing  industry, 
pbopoetionate  cost  of  vabious  materials. 


Table  33,  which  follows,  shows  by  grades  of  garments  the  propor- 
tionate cost  of  materials  entering  into  all  the  units  for  which  cost 
data  were  obtained.  The  range  of  gross  prices  of  these  grades  appear 
in  this  table,  but  the  average  price  of  each  grade  appears  in  Table  30. 
The  cost  of  materials  is  based  on  the  average  total  cost  for  each 
group.  Separate  data  are  shown  for  the  fabric,  body  lining,  sleeve 
lining,  trimmings,  and  sundries,  and  cost  of  freight  for  defivery  of 
materials.  Trimmings  and  simdries  include  items  such  as  canvas, 
haircloth,  buttons,  thread,  wigan,  velvet  coUars,  etc. 

Table  33.— Proportionate  Cost  of  Materials  of  Low,  Medium,  and  High 
Grade  Suits  and  Overcoats,  and  Low  and  High  Grade  Trousers,  Based 
on  Average  Net  Cost  of  all  Materials. 

[Note.— The  figures  in  the  box  headings  show  the  range  of  gross  prices.] 

THREE-PIECE  SUITS. 


Items. 


Avwage  net  cost  of  all  materials.. 


Net  cost  of  fabric  (cloth) 

Net  cost  of  bod}'  lininj; 

Net  cost  of  sleeve  linin}^ 

Net  cost  of  trimmings  and  sundries. 
Freight 


Under 

18. 
18  Styles. 


$3,741 


2.541 

.508 
.085 
.607 


%S  to  $15, 
83  styles. 


S5.406 


3.582 
.586 
.119 

1.111 
.008 


115  and 

over, 

43  styles. 


17.733 


5.078 
.859 
.212 

1.558 
.026 


Under 

18, 
18  styles. 


Percent. 
100.00 


67.92 

13.58 

2.27 

16.23 


$8  to  115, 
83  styles. 


Per  cent. 
100.00 


66.26 
10.84 

2.20 
20.55 

0.15 


$15  and 

over, 

43  styles. 


Per  cent. 
100.00 


65.67 
11.11 

2.74 
20.15 

0.33 


OVERCOATS. 


Items. 


Average  net  cost  of  all  materials 


Net  cost  of  fabric  (cloth ) 

Net  cost  of  body  linin'^ 

Net  cost  of  sleeve  linin;4 

Net  cost  of  trimmings  and  sundries. 
Freight 


Under 

S8, 

7  styles. 


$4,002 


$8  to  $15, 
31  styles. 


$5,724 


2.239 
.712 
.241 
.810 


3.176 

1.138 

.460 

.934 

.007 


$15  and 

over, 

10  styles. 


$7,780 


3.822 
1.674 

.750 
1.509 

.025 


Under 

$8. 
7  styles. 


Percent. 
100.00 


55.95 

17.79 

6.02 

20.24 


$8  to  $15, 
31  styles. 


Percent. 
100.00 


55.49 
19.88 

8.19 
16.32 

0.12 


$15  and 

over, 

10  styles. 


Percent. 
100.00 


49.13 
21.51 

9.64 
19.40 

0.32 


'   r?r 


1 


\ 


[\\ 


COST  AND  PROFIT  BY  SPECIFIED  UNITS. 


125 


lining  cost  enter  into  their  manufacture.  Suits  have  a  greater  per- 
centage of  cost  for  trimmings  and  sundries  than  for  body  and  sleeve 
linings  combined.  Overcoats,  however,  show  a  larger  percentage 
of  cost  for  linings  than  for  trimmings  and  simdries. 

The  percentage  of  fabric  cost  is  highest  for  the  low  grades  of  suits 
and  overcoats  and  decreases  gradually,  showing  the  lowest  cost  for 
the  high  grades.  Trousers,  however,  show  a  greater  cost  for  the 
high  grade  than  for  the  low. 

COST  OF  DIRECT  LABOB  IN  UNIT. 

Table  34,  which  follows,  is  supplementary  to  Table  26.  It  shows 
in  detail,  by  place  of  manufacture,  the  cost  of  the  different  direct- 
labor  operations  in  making  each  style  for  which  data  were  furnished. 
The  cost  of  the  operations  of  sponging,  examining,  and  cutting  is 
given  for  the  unit  as  a  whole.  Data  for  the  three  garments  of  a  suit, 
viz,  the  coat,  vest,  and  pants,  are  given  separately,  wherever  possible. 
The  column  ''Contract  work,"  shows  the  total  amount  paid  for  the 
garment  if  made  in  a  contract  shop. 


SEPARATE  TROUSERS. 


Items. 


Average  net  cost  of  all  materials 

Net  cost  of  fabric  (cloth) 

Net  cost  of  trimmings  and  sundries 


Under 

$2.75, 

11  styles. 


$0,991 


.824 
.167 


$2.75  and 

over, 
7  styles. 


$2,070 


1.816 
.254 


Under 

$2.75.  ^ 

11  styles.^ 


Percent. 
100.00 


83.15 
16.85 


$2.75  and 

over, 

7  styles. 


Percent. 
100.00 


87.73 
12.27 


In  suits,  the  cost  of  fabric  amounts  to  about  two-thirds  of  the 
total  material  cost;  in  overcoats,  to  about  half  of  the  total  cost;  and 
in  trousers,  to  about  seven-eighths  of  the  total  cost.  The  high  per- 
centage of  fabric  cost  in  trousers  is  due  to  the  fact  that  no  items  of 


126 


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138  men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 

unit  cost,  mcludxng  depreciation  and  intebest. 

Table  35,  which  follows,  shows  the  cost  of  production,  selling  price, 
and  profit  and  loss  of  the  units  reported  in  Table  26,  including  the 
additional  costs  of  depreciation  and  interest.  The  figures  in  the 
columns  for  total  cost  and  net  price  are  the  same  as  the  figures  in 
Table  26.  Whether  to  include  the  cost  of  depreciation  and  interest 
when  considering  the  cost  of  production  of  commodities,  is  a  mooted 
question.     These  items  are  shown  here  for  comparative  purposes  only. 

Table  35.— Cost  of  Production,  Sellino  Price,  and  Profit  and  Loss  of  Units 
Shown  in  Table  26,  with  Additional  Cost  of  Depreciation  and  Interest. 

|Tho  styles  are  designated  by  letters  for  convenience  of  reference  to  other  tables.    The  same  letter  applied 
to  the  product  of  different  establishments  does  not  Indicate  identity  or  even  similarity  of  style.] 

THREE-PIECE  SUITS. 


/ 


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COST  AND  PROFIT  BY  SPECIFIED  UNITS. 


139 


Establishment  No. 


23 

15 

42 

23 

24 

38 

17 

9. 

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42 

15 

10 

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39 

17 

9. 

39 

15 

35 

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42 

37 

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35 

18. 

42. 

41 

30. 

47. 

36. 

35. 

36. 

59. 

59. 

42. 

22. 

14. 

15. 

38. 

41. 


Styles. 


Cost,  ex- 
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tion and 
interest. 


D 

119. 818 

F 

21.368 

F 

21.806 

C 

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A 

18.250 

F 

16.483 

D 

17.206 

D 

18.594 

E 

15.694 

E 

17.185 

E 

17.862 

c 

18.389 

C 

17.241 

D 

14.687 

C 

15.339 

B 

16.071 

c 

13.799 

D 

15.038 

F 

14.903 

A 

15.131 

B 

13.192 

D 

13.359 

D 

14.999 

E 

15.128 

D 

15.309 

c 

16.252 

E 

13.807 

B 

14.100 

D 

14.405 

B 

14. 704 

B 

15.351 

c 

14.590 

A 

12.647 

c 

13. 477 

D 

14.196 

c 

14.367 

B 

12. 448 

D 

12.805 

A 

14.488 

C 

11.854 

D 

12.9a5 

A 

13.507 

C 

12.. 500 

C 

12.  m) 

C 

12.482 

A 

12.605 

1) 

10.843 

C 

11.016 

B 

10.740 

B 

11.301 

c 

11.591 

B 

11.700 

B 

11.855 

C 

11.989 

C 

11.994 

Additional  costs  of— 


Depreci- 
ation. 


SO.  041 
.087 
.017 
.087 
.034 
.013 
.021 
.041 
.012 
.013 
.031 
.042 
.088 
.012 
.019 
.036 
.011 
.026 
.030 
.034 
.010 
.010 
.022 
.008 
.013 
.082 
.028 
.029 
.029 
.030 
.035 
.012 
.010 
.024 
.029 
.020 
.015 
.026 
.050 
.009 
.007 
.019 
.013 
.026 
.026 
.026 
.012 
.012 
.006 
.012 
.018 
.021 
.024 
.006 
.025 


Interest. 


$0,097 
.163 
.058 
.086 
.119 
.014 
.019 
.240 
.013 
.047 
.130 
.820 
.222 
.012 
.017 
.210 
.011 
.114 
.218 
.196 
.011 
.038 
.058 
.058 
.288 
.054 
.206 
.063 
.197 
.197 
.676 
.280 
.010 
.101 
.147 
.055 
.014 
.193 
.265 
.035 
.053 
.181 

.176 
.181 
.173 
.136 
.136 
.031 
.055 
.151 
.069 
.128 
.048 
.128 


Final 

cost  of 

unit. 


$19,956 
21.568 
21.883 
18.171 
18.403 
16.510 
17.246 
ia875 
15.719 
17.245 
1&023 
19.251 
17.501 
14.711 
15.375 
16.317 
13.821 
15. 178 
15. 151 
15.363 
13.213 
13.407 
15.079 
15.194 
15. 610 
16.338 
14.041 
14.192 
14.631 
14.931 
16.062 
14.882 
12.667 
13.602 
14.372 
14.  442 
12.477 
13.024 
14.803 
11.896 
12.965 
13.707 
12.612 
12.832 
12.689 
12.804 
10.991 
11.164 
10.779 
11.368 
11.760 
11.810 
12.007 
12.043 
12.147 


Net 

price  of 

unit. 


$23,205 
23.'J50 
23.250 
20.475 
20.475 
20.460 
19. 110 
18.428 
18.600 
18.600 
1&600 
1&200 
17.062 
17.205 
16.835 
16.152 
16.275 
16.275 
15.925 
15.242 
15.345 
15.345 
15.345 
15. 345 
15.345 
15.345 
15.015 
15.015 
15.015 
15.015 
15.015 
14.880 
14. 415 
14. 415 
14. 415 
14.415 
14. 115 
14.105 
14.250 
13.950 
13.950 
13.950 
13.500 
13.422 
13.195 
13.195 
12.690 
12.690 
12.555 
12.555 
12.555 
12.555 
12.555 
12.555 
12.656 


Final 
profit. 


$3,249 
1.682 
1.367 
2.304 
2.072 
3.950 
1.864 


2.881 

1.355 

.577 


2.494 
1.460 


2.454 

1.097 

.774 


2.132 
1.938 

•  ZOO 

.151 


.974 
.823 
.384 
.084 


1.748 
.813 
.043 


1.638 
1.061 


2.052 
.985 
.243 

.  ooty 

.590 

.506 

.391 

1.699 

1.526 

1.776 

1.187 

.795 

.745 

.548 

.512 

.406 


Final 
loss. 


$0,447 


1.051 
.439 


.165 


.121 


V 


.265 
.998 


1.047 
.002 


.027 
".553 


Table  35. — Cost  of  Production,  Selling  Price,  and  Profit  and  Loss  op  Units 
Shown  in  Table  26,  with  Additional  Cost  of  Depreciation  and  Interest — 
Continued. 

THREE-PIECE  SUITS— Contfaued. 


Styles. 

Cost,  ex- 
cluding 
deprecia- 
tion and 
interest. 

Additional  costs  of— 

Final 

cost  of 

unit. 

Net 

price  of 

unit. 

Final 
profit. 

Final 
loss. 

Establishment  No. 

Depreci- 
ation. 

Interest. 

30 

B 
B 
C 
B 
B 
A 
A 
B 
D 
B 
B 
B 
B 
D 
B 
A 
A 
A 
C 
B 
A 
B 
C 
C 
B 
A 
B 
C 
C 
A 
D 
B 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
D 
B 
B 
A 
B 
C 
A 
A 
A 
C 
A 
B 
C 
A 
B 
B 
C 
D 
A 
B 
C 
B 
B 
B 
D 
C 
A 
B 
A 
C 
A 
B 
A 
B 
A 

$12. 120 

12.532 

12.842 

12.874 

11.727 

12.626 

10.493 

11.377 

12.560 

12. 195 

10.925 

11. 101 

11. 149 

1L289 

11.  470 

10.823 

12.546 

10.498 

U.440 

10.943 

1L177 

11.346 

1L680 

9.487 

9.688 

11. 197 

10.095 

10.369 

10.082 

9.034 

9.657 

9.034 

9.070 

9.202 

9.502 

9.535 

10. 737 

10. 710 

8.761 

8.870 

9.169 

9.210 

9.647 

9.466 

9.080 

9.094 

9.166 

9.338 

9.379 

9.995 

10.067 

10. 107 

8.512 

8.879 

8.721 
10.525 
9.921 
7.884 
8.500 
8  674 
8.116 
8.318 
9.785 
7. 252 
7. 8.51 
7.768 
6.401 
7.201 
7.217 
7.672 
6.505 
7.360 

f  0.017 
.024 
.027 
.011 
.024 
.027 
.013 
.012 
.012 
.042 
.006 
.016 
.006 
.011 
.009 
.022 
.029 
.011 
.006 
.017 
.024 
.024 
.012 
.007 
.011 
.023 
.009 
.011 
.010 
.007 
.003 
.012 
.013 
.005 
.010 
.017 
.009 
.059 
.003 
.005 
.003 
.014 
.005 
.032 
.014 
.007 
.005 
.009 
.018 
.010 
.014 
.010 
.006 
.014 
.002 
.009 
.033 
.021 
.003 
.009 
.009 
.002 
.028 
.003 
.008 
.008 
.007 
.002 
.003 
.003 
.008 
.010 
.016 

$0,163 
.044 
.108 
.236 
.168 
.052 
.012 
.089 
.074 
.221 
.006 
.044 
.044 
.169 
M15 
.156 
.512 
.082 
.106 
.134 
.096 
.096 
.177 
,062 
.116 
.109 
.033 
.135 
.063 
.026 
.010 
.096 
.037 
.005 
.043 
.068 
.184 
.075 
.077 
.021 
.067 
.116 
.088 
.177 
.112 
.092 
.035 
.135 

.a^'^ 

.148 
.121 
.148 
.052 
.060 
.009 
.066 
.006 
.074 
.070 
.110 
.a52 
.008 
.155 
.137 
.085 
.115 
.024 
.a53 
.062 
.062 
.098 
.087 
.058 

$12,300 

12.600 

12.977 

13. 121 

lL9i9 

12.705 

10. 518 

IL  478 

12.&55 

12. 458 

10.937 

11. 161 

n.l99 

11.469 

1L594 

11.001 

13.087 

10.591 

11.552 

11.094 

11.297 

n.  466 

11.869 

9.556 

9. 815 

1L329 

10. 137 

10. 515 

10. 155 

9.067 

9.670 

9.142 

9.120 

9.212 

9.555 

9.620 

10.930 

10.844 

a  841 

&896 

9.239 

9.340 

9.740 

9.675 

9.206 

9.193 

9.206 

9.482 

9.430 

10.153 

10.202 

10.265 

8.570 

8.953 

9.005 

8.796 

10.564 

10.016 

7.957 

8.619 

8.735 

8.126 

8.501 

9.925 

7.345 

7.974 

7.799 

6.4.56 

7.266 

7.282 

7.778 

6.602 

7,434 

$12,555 

12.555 

12.555 

12.555 

12.285 

12.285 

12.280 

12.150 

12.610 

11.875 

1L625 

11.625 

11.625 

11.625 

11.625 

1L375 

1L375 

n.2.50 

11.760 

11.160 

11.160 

11.160 

11.160 

10.920 

10. 810 

10.695 

ILOOO 

10.780 

10.670 

10.230 

10.010 

9.765 

9.765 

9.765 

9.76.5 

9. 765 

9. 765 

9.555 

9.800 

9.800 

9.800 

9.800 

9.800 

9.500 

9.300 

9.300 

9.300 

9.300 

9.300 

9.300 

9.  .300 

9.300 

9.100 

9.100 

9.100 

9.000 

9.900 

9.310 

8.820 

8.820 

8. 73.) 

8.190 

8.312 

8.a30 

7.990 

7.905 

8. 00  J 

7. 840 

7.840 

7.840 

7.840 

7.350 

7.350 

$0,255 

11 

$0,045 

54 

.422 

34 

.566 

35 

.366 

23 

.420 

17 

1.762 
.672 

47 

61 

.045 

18 

.583 

25 

.688 
.464 
.426 
.156 
.031 
.374 

37 

41 

13 

44 

35 

10 

1.712 

47 

.659 
.208 
.066 

56 

14 

54 

.137 

54 

.306 

49 

.709 

28 

1.364 
.995 

59 

38 

.634 

5     

.863 
.265 
.515 
1.163 
.340 
.623 
.645 
.5.53 
.210 
.145 

33 

61 

42 

64 

62 

37 

25 

22 

15 

34 

1.165 

27 

1.289 

45 

.959 
.904 
.561 
.460 
.060 

43 

50 

55 

56 

18 

.175 

14 

.094 
.107 
.094 

44 

41 

13 

.182 

11 

.130 

49 

.853 

30 

.902 

49 

.965 

28 

.530 
.147 
.095 
.204 

26 

64 

47 

3. 

.664 

52 

.706 

45 

.863 
.2.)1 

33 

61 

.00) 

64 

.064 

18 

.181 

57 

1.595 

59 

.645 

13 

.06!) 

6. 

.231 
1.384 
.574 
.558 
.062 
.748 

50 

45 

45 

33 

.55 

52 

.084 

^ 


J  40 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


COST  and  profit  by  specified  units. 


141 


Table  35.~Co8t  of  Production,  Selung  Price,  and  Profit  and  Loss  of  Units 
Shown  in  Table  26,  with  Additional  Cost  of  Depreciation  and  Interest — 
Continued. 

THREE-PIECE  SUITS— Continued. 


Establishment  No. 


57 

57 

13 

46 

30 

28 

26 

50 

56 

61 

62 

64 

3. 

43 

3. 

3.. 


Cost,  ex- 

Additional costs  of— 

Styles. 

cluding 
deprecia- 

Final 
cost  of 

Net 
price  of 

tion  and 
interest. 

Depreci- 
ation. 

Interest. 

imit. 

unit. 

B 

$7. 701 

SO.  003 

SO.  121 

S7.825 

r.350 

A 

8.114 

.003 

.121 

8.238 

7.350 

A 

7.090 

.007 

.101 

7.198 

6.975 

B 

7.384 

.004 

.069 

7.457 

6.975 

D 

7.736 

.011 

.091 

7.838 

6.975 

A 

6.185 

.004 

.034 

6.223 

6.825 

A 

6.408 

.010 

.045 

6.463 

6.825 

A 

6  403 

.002 

.048 

6.453 

7.105 

A 

6.624 

.003 

.062 

6.680 

6.860 

A 

6.340 

.006 

.040 

6.386 

6.790 

A 

6  235 

.009 

.064 

6.308 

6.510 

A 

6.358 

.002 

.006 

6.366 

6.370 

B 

7.792 

.025 

.004 

7.821 

6.900 

A 

6.768 

.003 

.013 

5.784 

6.370 

C 

5.126 

.016 

.003 

5.145 

4.900 

D 

4.378 

.014 

.002 

4.394 

3.900  1 

Final 
profit. 


SO.  602 
.362 
.652 
.171 
.404 
.202 
.004 

""'.'586 


OVERCOATS. 


Final 
loss. 


to.  475 
.888 
.223 
.482 
.863 


.921 


.245 
.494 


24 

B 

F 

F 

I 

F 

F 

E 

H 

E   . 

K 

E 

E 

E 

G 

D 

C 

E 

D 

E 

E 

F 

E 

E 

D 

E 

F 

D 

D 

C 

B 

C 

D 

C 

F 

F 

F 

D 

D 

F 

C 

E 

F 

D 

D 

C 

E 

E 

A 

S18.509 

16.668 

14.787 

14.515 

14.073 

12.877 

15.453 

12.913 

15.737 

14.348 

13.642 

12.385 

10. 879 

9.630 

11.661 

11.980 

12.  767 

13. 197 

11.344 

11.394 

11.524 

11.425 

9.694 

10.483 

11.452 

11.943 

11.674 

8.656 

8.737 

10.001 

10.168 

10.168 

7.673 

9.537 

9.516 

10.004 

8.547 

7.485 

7.553 

6.255 

6.797 

6.459 

6.559 

7.704 

7.725 

7.128 

5.577 

6.511 

{0.034 
.037 
.018 
.025 
.011 
.027 
.085 
.022 
.022 
.030 
.030 
.026 
.013 
.016 
.022 
.011 
.018 
.028 
.024 
.012 
.012 
.039 
.011 
.006 
.009 
.018 
.027 
.007 
.005 
.009 
.055 
.055 
.011 

.009 
.014 
.018 
.005 
.002 
.005 
.002 
.002 
.010 
.003 
.017 
.007 
.002 
.006 

;o.iii 

.219 
.016 
.114 
.288 
.063 
.655 
.101 
.053 
.179 
.172 
.112 
.013 
.089 
.044 
.018 
.163 
.108 
.052 

.om 

.089 
.221 
.126 
.006 
.219 
.044 
.512 
.033 
.005 
.014 
.075 
.075 
.116 
.177 
.135 
.121 
.074 
.049 
.008 
.024 
.062 
.058 
.087 
.121 
.058 
.101 
.007 
.009 

118.654 

16.924 

14.821 

14.654 

14.372 

12.967 

16. 143 

13.036 

15.812 

14.557 

13.844 

12.523 

10.905 

9.735 

11.727 

12.009 

12.948 

13.333 

11.420 

11.495 

11.625 

11.685 

9.831 

10.495 

11.680 

12.005 

12. 213 

8.606 

8.747 

10.024 

10.298 

10.298 

7.800 

9.747 

9.660 

10.139 

8.639 

7.539 

7.563 

6.284 

6.861 

6.519 

6.656 

7.828 

7.800 

7.236 

5.586 

6.526 

S19.110 

16.  KVi 

16.380 

16.275 

15.345 

15.015 

14.560 

14.415 

13.950 

13.6E0 

13. 195 

13.020 

12.740 

12.555 

12.555 

12.555 

12.555 

12.555 

12.285 

12.150 

12.150 

11.875 

11.750 

11.625 

11.625 

11.625 

11.375 

11.000 

9.765 

9.765 

9.55.5 

9.555 

9.800 

9.500 

9.300 

9.300 

9.310 

8.645 

8.190 

8.000 

7.840 

7.350 

7.350 

7.3.'iO 

7.350 

6.975 

6.825 

6.742 

SO.  456 

9 

10  089 

17 

1.559 

1.621 

.973 

2.048 

15 

34 

23 

10. 

1  583 

15 

1.379 

37 

1  862 

36 

907 

9 

640 

54 

.497 
1.835 
2.820 

.828 
.646 

17 

15 

11 

63 

30 

393 

54 

.778 

23 

.865 
.655 
.526 
.190 
1.919 
1.130 

47 

47 

18 

59 

25 

34 

065 

37 

.380 

10 

.838 

5. 

2.304 
1.018 

as 

es 

.250 

27 

743 

27 

.743 

55 

2.000 

18 

247 

13 

360 

30 

839 

52 

.671 
1.106 
.627 
1.716 
.1*79 
.831 
.694 

28 

64 

5. 

45 

45 

55 

57 

478 

52 

.450 

13 

261 

64 

i.239 
.216 

63 

-  - 


Table  35. — Cost  of  Production,  Selling  Price,  and  Profit  and  Loss  of  Units 
Shlwn  in  Table  26,  with  Additional  Cost  of  Depreciation  and  Interest — 
Continued. 

SEPARATE  TROUSERS. 


Establishment  No. 


4. 
53 
4. 

-^  •^  2. 
68 
61 
46 
63 
2. 
4. 
51 
53 
61 
51 


Styles. 

Cost,  ex- 
cluding 
deprecia- 
tion and 
interest. 

Additional  costs  of— 

Final 

cost  of 

unit. 

Net 

price  of 

unit. 

Final 
profit. 

Final 
lossi. 

Depreci- 
ation. 

Interest. 

E 
C 
D 
C 
C 
B 
B 
B 
D 
A 
E 
A 
A 
C 
A 
A 
B 
D 

S4.287 
3.192 
3.710 
3.395 
2.889 
2.853 
2.217 
1.966 
2.291 
2.303 
1.876 
1.851 
1.960 
1.743 
1.259 
1.338 
1.338 
1.438 

SO.  003 
.002 
.003 
.002 
.004 
.002 
.003 
.001 
.002 
.001 
.002 
.002 
.001 
.001 
.001 
.001 
.001 
.001 

SO.  006 
.023 
.005 
.005 
.009 
.004 
.007 
.014 

S4.296 
3.217 
3.718 
3.402 
2.902 
2.859 
2.227 
1.981 
2.293 
2.327 
1.881 
1.859 
1.964 
1.744 
1.269 
1.3:i9 
1.339 
1.441 

S4.500 
3.780 
3.750 
3.500 
3.185 
2.950 
2.502 
2.32.T 
2.325 
2.32.5 
2.092 
2.047 
2.000 
1.860 
1.395 
1.395 
1.395 
1.395 

SO.  204 
.563 
.032 
.098 
.283 
.091 
.275 
.344 
.032 

( 
1 

1 



.023 
.003 
.006 
.003 

SO.  002 

.211 

.188 
.036 
.116 
.126 
.056 
.056 

.009 

.002 

.046                                i 

( 

Table  36,  which  follows,  compiled  from  Tables  26  and  35,  is  intended 
to  show  the  number  of*  units  sold  at  a  loss  excluding  the  cost  of  de- 
preciation and  interest,  compared  with  the  same  units  including 
these  costs. 

Table  36. — Number  of  Units  Reported  Sold  at  a  Loss  with  Cost  of  Deprecia- 
tion AND  Interest  Excluded,  Compared  with  the  Number  op  Units  Sold  at 
A  Loss  Including  Depreciation  and  Interest. 


Kinds. 

Number 

of  units 

reported. 

Number  sold  at  a 
loss,  depreciation 
and  interest- 

Kinds. 

Number 

of  units 

reported. 

Number  sold  at  a 
loss,  depreciation 
and  interest— 

Ex- 
cluded. 

In- 
cluded. 

Ex- 
cluded. 

In- 
cluded. 

Three-piece  suits: 

Under  S8 

$8  to  SI') 

18 
83 
43 

9 

20 

6 

10 
24 

8 

Separate  trousers: 

Under  $2.75 

$2.75  and  ovOT.. 

Total 

Grand  total.. 

• 

11 

7 

1 

S 

$15  and  over . . . 

18 
210 

1 
53 

2 
63 

Total 

144 

35 

42 

Overcoats: 

Under  S8 

»8toS15 

$15  and  over . . . 

7 
31 
10 

3 

11 

3 

4 

12 
3 

Total 

48 

17 

19 

COST  AFFECTED  BT  INCBEASED  PRICES  OF  WOOL. 

As  shown  bv  preceding  tables,  the  cost  of  materials  averages 
more  than  half  the  total  cost  of  production  of  clothing.  The  cost 
of  the  fabric  or  outer  cloth  is  several  times  as  large  as  the  cost  of  the 
other  materials.  The  cost  of  the  fabric  made  of  wool  or  partly  of 
wool  depends  on  the  cost  of  wool.     During  the  years  1913,  1914,  and 


142 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


1915  there  were  great  variations  in  the  prices  of  the  various  kinds 
of  wool,  as  shown  by  the  following  table: 

Table  37.— Wholesale  Prices  op  Wool  and  Mohair  in  United  States  Markets, 

January,  1913,  to  December,  1915. 

(Prices  at  Boston  furnished  by  the  Boston  Commercial  Bulletin.] 


Date. 


1913. 

January  3 

Febniary  7 

March  7 

April  4 

May  2 

June  6 

July3 

July  11 

July  18 

July  25 

August  1 

Augusts 

August  15 

August  22 

August  29 

September  5 . . 
September  12. 
September  19. 
8epteml)er26. 

Octobers 

October  10 

October  17 

October  24 

October  31 

November?... 
November  14.. 
Noveml>er21.. 
Noveml)er28.. 
Deceml>er  5 . . . 
December  12.. 
December  19.. 
December  26  6. 


1914. 

January  2 

January  9 

January  16... 
January  23... 
January  30... 
Februar>'6... 
February  13.. 
February  20.. 
February  27.. 

March  6 

March  13 

March  20 

March  27 

Aprils 

April  10 

April  17 

April  24 

May  1 

Mays 

May  15 

May  22 


Wool. 


Wash- 
ed 
Ohio, 
XX. 


Cents. 
32 
32 
29 
29 
27 
27 
27 
28 
29 
29 
29 
29 
27 
26 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
26 
36 
26 
25J 
25| 
25^ 
25f 
25J 


25| 

254 

26 

26 

26 

26 

26| 

264 

27 

27 

27 

27 

27 

27 

27 

27 

27 

27 

27 


Unwashed. 


Michi- 
gan, 
fine. 


Ohio, 
fine. 


Ken- 
tucky 
and  In- 
diana, 
J  blood. 


Scoured  basis. 


Territorial  fine 
medium.a 


Staple. 


Cloth- 
ing. 


B 

super- 
pulled. 


Aus- 
tralian 

64 's 
comb- 
ing. 


Mohair. 


Choice. 


Comb- 
ing. 


Per  poimd. 


Ceiits. 
23 
23 
22 
22 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
30 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
30 
20 
?0 
20 


20 

20 

20 

20 

20 

20 

21 

21 

21 

?l 

21 

21 

21 

21 

21 

21 

21 

21 

21 

22 

22 


Cents. 
24 
24 
24 
23.} 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 


21 

21 

21 

21.i 

21i 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

22 

23 

23 


Cents. 
32 
32 
30 
29 
27 
25 
25 
26 
26 
26 
26 
26 
26 
26 
25 
24i 
24| 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
23J 
23. 
23) 
23) 
23i 
23J 
23i 


23j 

23] 

23l 

23| 

23) 

23| 

23i 

231 

23) 

23) 

23l 

23) 

23) 

23) 

23) 

25 

25 

25 

26 

26 

27 


Cents. 
65 
63 
58 
59 
56 
55 
55 
55 
55 
55 
55 
54 
f4 
54 
54 
53 
53 
53 
53 
S3 
53 
54 
52 
52 
52 
52 
52 
51 
51 
51 
51 
51 


51 
52 
52 
52 
52 
53 
53 
54 
54 
54 
54 
54 
54 
55 
55 
55 
55 

a5 

56 
58 
58 


Genu. 
59 
58 
57 
55 
53 
50 
50 
5(r 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
P? 

4«< 

48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 


48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
50 
51 
51 
52 
52 
52 
•52 

5^ 
53 
53 
53 
53 
55 
55 


Cents. 
53 
54 
f4 
47 
45 
45 
45 
45 
45 
45 
45 
45 
45 
45 
45 
43 
43 
42 
42 
42 
42 
40 
40 
40 
39 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 


38 
38 
40 
42 
42 
42 
42 
42 
42 
42 
42 
42 
42 
43 
43 
43 
43 
43 
43 
43 
43 


Cents. 
82 
82 
82 
82 
82 
83 
82 
82 
82 
82 
82 
83 
82 
83 
82 
83 
83 
82 
82 
82 
82 
82 
82 
82 
82 
82 
82 
82 
82 
61 
63 
62 


62 
62 
62 
61 
61 
62 
61 
62 
62 
62 
62 
63 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
67 
67 


Cents. 
36 
36 
36 
37 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 

:» 

37 
37 
37 
37 


37 
36 
36 
37 
37 
37 
3« 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 


Card- 
ing. 


Cents. 
25 
25 
25 
25 
36 
26 
26 
26 
36 
26 
26 
26 
26 
26 
36 
36 
36 
36 
26 
26 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
26 
26 
36 
38 
38 
38 
28 


28 
38 
38 
38 
28 
28 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 


«  Territorial  wools  embrace  the  Dakotas,  Idaho,  Arizona,  Nevada,  Washington,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska. 
» Prices  of  wool  for  Dec.  24.  ,  <?      »  »  "^ 


if 


COST  AND  PROFIT  BY  SPECIFIED  UNITS. 


143 


.V 


Table  37. — Wholesale  Prices  of  Wool  and  Mohair  in  United  States  Markets, 

January,  1913,  to  December,  1915— Continued. 


Data. 


1914. 

May  29 

June  5 

June  12 

June  19 

June  26 

Julys 

July  10 

July  17 

July  24 

July  31 

August  7 

August  14 

August  21 

August  28 

Septemt)er  4 

September  11.. 
September  is . . 
September  25 . . 

October  2 

October  9 

October  16..... 

October  23 

October  30 

November  6 . . . 
November  13... 
November  20. . . 
November  27. . . 
Deoembw  4.... 
December  11... 
December  18... 
December  25 . . . 

1915. 

January  1 

January  8 

January  15 

January  22 

January  29 

Februarys 

February  12 

February  19 

February  26.... 

March  5 

March  12 

March  19 

March  26 

April  2 

April9 

AprUl6 

AprU23 

AprUSO 

May  7 

May  13 

May  20 

May  27 

Junes 

June  10 

June  17 

June  24 

July  1 

Julys 

July  15 

July  23 

July  29 

Augusts 


Wool. 


Wash- 
ed 
Ohio, 
XX. 


Unwashed. 


Michi- 
gan, 
fine. 


Ohio, 
fine. 


Ken- 
tucky 
and  In- 
diana, 
I  blood. 


Scoured  basis. 


Territorial  fine 
medium. 


Staple. 


Cloth- 
ing. 


B 
super- 
pulled. 


Aus- 
tralian 

64's 
comb- 
ing. 


Mohair. 


Choice. 


Comb- 
ing. 


Per  pound. 


Cents. 

Cents. 

27 

22 

28 

22 

28 

23 

28 

23 

28 

23 

28 

23 

29 

23 

29 

23 

29 

23 

29 

23 

29 

23 

29 

23 

29 

23 

31 

23 

31 

23 

31 

23 

31 

23 

31 

23 

30 

23 

28 

23 

28 

23 

28 

23 

27 

23 

27 

22 

29 

22 

29 

23 

29 

23 

29 

23 

29 

23 

29 

23 

29 

23 

29 

23 

30 

23 

30 

23 

30 

23 

30 

23 

30 

23 

33 

26 

33 

26 

33 

26 

33 

26 

33 

26 

33 

36 

33 

36 

33 

2ft 

33 

r 

32 

V 

32 

7* 

32 

V 

32 

23 

32 

23 

32 

23 

32 

23 

32 

23 

32 

23 

32 

23 

32 

23 

32 

23 

32 

23 

32 

23 

32 

23 

32 

23 

33 

S 

Cents. 
23 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 


24 
27 
24 
25 
25 
26 
29 
29 
29 
29 
29 
29 
29 
29 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27. 
27 
27 
27 


Cents. 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
28 
28 
28 
28 
29 
29 


29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

36 

36 

37 

38 

38 

38 

38 

38 

37 

37 

37 

37 

37 

37 

37 

37 

37 

37 

38 

39 

39 

39) 

39 

39 

39 

39 


CtrUs. 
59 
59 
59 
59 
59 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
62 
62 
62 
60 
60 
60 


60 
62 
62 
62 
63 
65 
67 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
68 
68 
66 
66 
67 
67 
67 
67 
67 
67 
67 
68 
68 
68 
68 
68 
68 


Cents. 
55 
55 
55 
55 
55 
57 
57 
57 
57 
57 
57 
57 
57 
57 
57 
57 
57 
67 
57 
57 
57 
67 
57 
57 
57 
57 
57 
57 
57 
57 
57 


57 
57 
57 
57 
59 
62 
65 
68 
68 
68 
68 
68 
68 
68 
68 
68 
68 
68 
68 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 


Cents. 
43 
43 
43 
43 
43 
43 
43 
43 
43 
45 
46 
46 
46 
46 
46 
46 
45 
45 
45 
45 
48 
48 
48 
49 
50 
51 
51 
51 
51 
56 
56 


59 
60 
60 
61 
63 
64 
62 
62 
72 
71 
71 
68 
68 
67 
65 
63 
62 
60 
60 
60 
60 
63 
63 
65 
65 
65 
66 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 


Cents. 
67 
67 
67 
67 
67 
67 
68 
71 
71 
71 
71 
71 
71 
71 
71 
68 
65 
63 
63 
63 
63 
63 
63 
63 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 


65 
65 
66 
65 
66 
68 
68. 
68 
68 
68 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
68 
68 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 


Cents. 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
.36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 


36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
38 
40 
38 
38 


Card- 
ing. 


Cents. 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 


33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
S3 
33 
35 
37 
35 
35 


144 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


i 


Table  37.— Wholesale  Prices  op  Wool  and  Mohair  in  United  States  Markets, 
January,  1913,  to  December,  1915 — Continued. 


Date,. 


1915. 

Augltst  13 

AugtLst  20...'. 

Aupust  27 

September  3 . 
September  10 
Septemlwr  17 
September  24 

October  1 

Octobers 

October  15 . . . 
October  22... 
October  29... 
November  5. . 
November  12. 
Novembw  19. 
November  26. 
Deceml>er  3 . . 
Deceml>er  10. 
Deceml>er  17. 
December  24 . 


Wool. 


Wash- 
ed 
Ohio, 
XX. 


Unwashed. 


Michj- 

fan, 
ne. 


Ohio, 
fine. 


Ken- 
tucky 
and  In- 
diana, 
i  blood. 


Scoured  bisis. 


Territorial  fine 
medium. 


Stajde. 


Cloth- 
ing. 


B 

super- 
pulled. 


Aus- 
traJlian 

64 's 
comb- 
ing. 


Mohair. 


Choice. 


Comb- 
ing. 


Card- 
ing. 


Per  pound. 


Cents. 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
33 
32 
3U 
32| 
32 
32 


Centt. 
23 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
25 
25 
25 
25 


Oent». 
27m 
27m 
27m 
27 
27, 
27  f 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 


Cents. 
39i 
391 
39$ 
39| 
39) 
3ni 
38 
37 
37 
37 
37 
37 
37 
38 
38 
38 
38 
3K 
38 
38 


Oenlt. 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
71 
72 
72 
72 


Cents. 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
65 
68 
68 
68 
68 


Cents. 
65 
65 
65 
65 
63 
63 
63 
63 
63 
63 
60 
flO 
60 
63 
64 
64 
64 
64 
64 
64 


Cents. 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
75 
75 
75 
75 
75 
75 


Cents. 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 
38 


Cents. 


35 
35 
35 
S5 
35 
35 
35 
35 
35 
35 
35 
35 
35 
35 
35 
35 
35 
35 
35 
35 


During  the  year  1913  there  was  a  gradual  decline  in  the  prices  of 
most  kinds  of  wool.  During  the  years  1914  and  1915  prices  have 
increased.  The  prices  of  woolen  cloths  have  increased  correspond- 
ingly, and  as  wages  have  not  decreased  the  cost  of  production  of 
clotmng  has  increased  since  1913. 


V. 


.»  . a     i^.       .^ 


CHAPTER  rV. 
MANUFACTURING  CONDITIONS. 

PRINCIPAL  MANTJFACTUBING  CENTEBS. 

The  principal  centers  for  manufacturing  clothing  at  the  present 
time  are  New  York,  Chicago,  Baltimore,  Phdadelpliia,  and  Rochester. 
To  a  considerable  extent  clothing  is  also  manufactured  in  Cincinnati, 
Boston,  St.  Louis,  Milwaukee,  Cleveland,  Detroit,  Louisville,  Syracuse, 
and  San  Francisco.  New  York  employs  more  male  help  than  the 
other  principal  centers,  which  employ  female  help  to  a  large  degree. 
The  females  employed  in  New  York  and  Philadelpliia  are  mostly 
Italians.  New  York,  though  it  manufactures  some  very  fine  cloth- 
ing, is  the  largest  center  for  cheap  clothing.  Most  of  the  children's 
clothing  is  made  in  New  York.  Baltimore  and  Philadelphia  are  the 
largo  centers  for  medium-grade  clothing.  Chicago  and  Rochester, 
though  they  manufacture  medium  clothing  also,  are  the  principal 
cities  for  high-grade  clothing. 

In  New  York  and  Philadelphia  most  of  the  firms  are  of  medium 
size  or  small,  the  industry  in  New  York  particularly  being  in  the  hands 
of  numerous  small  manufactm-ers.  In  Chicago,  Ko.chester,  and  Bal- 
timore the  bulk  of  the  manufacturing  is  done  by  a  few  large  houses. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  THE   DIFFERENT  CENTERS   AS   TO  LABOR. 

None  of  the  principal  manufacturing  centers  enjoys  a  decided 
advantage  as  to  labor.  Immigration  no  longer  plays  the  important 
r61e  in  the  clothing  trade  that  it  formerly  did.  Years  ago  New 
York  and  the  other  Atlantic  coast  cities  had  a  decided  advantage. 
They  were  the  ports  of  arrival  of  the  foreigner,  who  usually  landed 
in  tnis  country  unpoverished,  and  manufacturers  in  these  cities  had 
no  difficulty  in  the  selection  of  help.  This  advantage,  however,  has 
to  a  great  extent  disappeared. 

Foreigners  are  clannish,  and  their  family  and  racial  ties  are  closely 
bound;  they  five  together  and  work  together.  The  foreigner  to-day, 
if  he  has  money,  inmiediately  goes  to  his  friends  in  whatever  cities 
they  happen  to  be  located,  or  if  he  is  brought  over  by  relatives,  will 
natiirally  be  brought  to  the  city  where  they  have  settled.  So  we 
find  that  the  Jewish  and  Italian  unskilled  laborers  whose  friends 
are  employed  in  clothing  factories  in  New  York  or  Baltimore  or 
Philadelphia,  go  to  these  phices.  The  Pole  or  Bohemian  who  has 
friends  in  Chicago  will  go  there,  the  German  to  Rochester,  etc.  It  is 
due  to  this  fact  that  the  centers  outside  of  New  York  have  sufficient 
help  of  the  kind  they  require  for  their  particular  product. 

A  great  change  in  the  method  of  manufacture  has  also  wiped  out 
the  advantage  that  the  Atlantic  coast  cities  derived  from  immigra- 
tion. Formerly,  when  few  operations  were  performed  on  a  coat,  a 
skilled    tailor    was    absolutely    necessary.    Immigration    furnished 


11914°— 16- 


-10 


145 


146 


MEN  S  FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


I 


these  cities  with  such  skilled  help.  To-day,  however,  there  is  so  great 
a  subdivision  of  labor  that  the  experienced  tailor  is  no  longer  essential. 
In  the  cost  of  hving,  the  centers  outside  of  New  York  and  Chicago, 
especially  manufacturing  centers  such  as  Baltimore,  Cleveland,  Cm- 
cinnati,  etc.,  have  a  decided  advantage. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  THE   PRINCIPAL  CENTERS  AS  TO  MARKET. 

New  York  appears  to  have  a  decided  advantage  as  to  market.  It 
is  nearest  to  the  New  England  woolen  mills  that  supply  most  of  the 
material  for  the  manufacture  of  clothing.  Every  important  woolen 
mill  has  sales  and  distributing  headquarters  in  New  York  in  which 
a  complete  sample  hne  of  fabrics  is  always  to  be  seen  and  from 
which  goods  are  delivered,  without  charge,  to  the  New  York  manu- 
facturers. Though  these  mills  have  salesmen  visit  manufacturers  in 
every  large  clothmg  center  several  times  a  year,  these  salesmen  do 
not  carry  complete  lines  nor  do  they  always  come  at  the  most  oppor- 
tune times.  As  novelties  are  constantly  being  introduced,  manufac- 
turers are  compelled  to  visit  New  York  if  they  are  to  keep  in  touch 
with  the  market. 

Retailers  or  their  buyers,  instead  of  visiting  the  different  locaUties 
for  the  various  classes  of  merchandise  they  require,  nrefor  to  go  to 
New  York,  where  in  one  visit  they  can  see  the  complete  range  from 
the  cheapest  to  the  best,  this  method  no  doubt  aiding  judicious 
buying.  Buyers  also  like  to  go  to  New  York  because  of  tne  many 
pleasiu-e  attractions  afforded,  which  are  a  very  important  considera- 
tion. In  previous  years  distant  retailers  rarely  visited  the  big 
markets.  At  present  it  is  the  exceptional  retader  who  does  not 
visit  the  New  York  market  several  times  a  year.  Reahzing  these 
facts,  most  of  the  large  and  medium-sized  manufacturers  of  other 
clothing  centers  have  established  selling  and  purchasing  offices  in 
New  York.  The  factories  in  New  York  have  in  this  respect  a  decided 
advantage,  for  they  save  the  large  expense  incurred  in  maintaining 
such  separate  offices  and  showrooms.  The  fact  that  the  salesmen  of 
all  manufacturers  visit  every  community  does  not  alter  the  neces- 
sity of  maintaining  offices  in  New  York. 

Philadelphia  and  Cincinnati  manufacturers  complain  that  buyers 
will  not  stop  off  en  route  to  New  York.  A  Cincinnati  manufacturer 
stated  that  the  merchants  of  that  city  had  organized  and  offered  to 
pay  the  railroad  fare  both  ways  and  other  expenses  while  in  the  city, 
to  buyers  who  would  purchase  a  certain  amount  of  goods.  Even 
this  offer  was  not  sufficient  to  induce  buyers  to  stop  off  at  Cincinnati. 
Chicago,  becaiise  of  its  size,  its  energetic  methods  of  advertising,  and 
the  fact  that  in  manv  respects  it  rivals  New  York  as  an  attraction 
center,  suffers  less  than  the  other  cities  in  comparison  with  New 
York.  Chicago  is  centrally  located  and  has  great  shipping  and  dis- 
tributing facilities.  In  spite  of  the  fact,  however,  that  retailers 
usually  pay  the  freight  and  express  charges,  and  thus  in  many  in- 
stances goods  purchased  in  Chicago  would  be  cheaper  than  if  pur- 
chased in  New  York,  this  item  rarely  enters  into  the  calculations  of 
the  buyer.  He  continues  to  go  to  New  York  to  examine  and  pur- 
chase nis  goods,  though  the  goods  may  not  be  made  by  a  New  York 
manufacturer. 


MANUFACTURING   CONDITIONS. 


LABGE  AND  SMALL  FACTOBIES. 


147 


V 


-A- 


Census  statistics  reproduced  in  the  section  on  "The  growth  of 
the  industry"  show  that  the  establishments  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  clothing  are  becoming  larger.  The  vSue  of  the  products 
of  such  establishments  reported  averaged  $48,301  in  1899,  $78,996 
in  1904,  and  $86,977  in  1909  per  establishment. 

A  number  of  advantages  are  enjoyed  by  the  larger  establishments. 
The  large  manufacturer  can  usually  buy  materials  on  better  terms 
than  the  small  manufacturer,  and  tne  mills  that  furnish  cloth  usually 
make  more  prompt  deliveries  to  him  than  to  the  small  manufacturer. 
The  large  manuiacturer,  whose  trade  extends  all  over  the  United 
States  and  in  regions  where  climatic  conditions  are  different,  can 
operate  his  factory  on  much  more  nearly  a  full-time  basis  than  the 
small  manufacturer,  and  on  that  account  he  is  better  able  to  hold 
his  working  force  together  throughout  the  year. 

The  large  manufacturer  can  effect  economies  by  the  division  and 
subdivision  of  the  work  in  his  factory.  By  distriouting  the  general 
expense  over  a  large  product  the  cost  per  unit  of  production  can  j 
be  reduced,  but  it  does  not  always  follow  that  this  will  be  the  result. 
Indeed,  great  care  and  good  judgment  are  required  to  handle  a  large 
organization  so  as  to  produce  goods  more  cheaply;  for  if  the  organiza- 
tion is  incomplete  or  too  complicated  it  may  be  very  inefficient. 

One  advantage  secured  by  large  manufacturers  when  practically 
all  of  their  garments  are  made  mside  is  that  they  are  enabled  to 
produce  goods  of  uniform  quality  and  to  produce,  season  by  season, 
garments  that  exhibit  distinctive  characteristics.  Such  a  result 
could  not  be  obtained  where  the  garments  are  made  by  various  con- 
tractors, especially  when  they  are  not  produced  imder  the  supervi- 
sion of  the  manuf  actiu-ing  establishment. 

Another  advantage  secured  by  a  large  establishment  that  has 
some  or  all  of  its  work  done  by  contract  is  that  on  account  of  its 
size  it  can  furnish  enough  work  to  a  contractor  to  make  it  an  object 
with  him  to  favor  the  large  manufacturer  over  the  smaller  one  in 
the  way  of  lower  prices  and  earher  dehvery.  The  large  manufac- 
turer is  thus  enabled  to  make  earlier  deliveries  to  his  customers, 
which  is  always  important,  because  a  large  number  of  the  cancella- 
tions of  a  firm  are  aue  to  slow  deliveries.  Moreover,  when  deliveries 
are  prompt  customers  are  not  so  apt  to  ask  for  extra  discounts,  and 
bills  are  paid  earlier  and  interest  cnarges  reduced.  Where  the  large 
manufacturer  docs  all  or  the  greater  part  of  his  manufacturing  inside, 
his  advantage  in  the  particular  just  mentioned  becomes  stiU  greater.  / 

Salesmen  are  a  big  factor  in  building  up  a  business,  and  the  prestige  ■ 
of  the  larger  establishments  enables  them  to  attract  the  best  class  of  ; 
salesmen.  Moreover,  the  name  of  a  large  manufacturer  extensively  I 
advertised  is  an  asset  to  the  retail  merchant,  who  prefers  to  buy  goods  • 
from  a  large,  widely  known  house,  because  the  brand  of  the  house 
helps  to  sefl  the  goods. 

The  medium-sized  manufacturer,  unless  he  produces  some  special  j 
Une  which  is  in  demand  and  which  his  factory  is  generally  known  to  I 
produce,  has  keen  competition  from  both  the  large  manufacturers 
and  the  small  manufacturers.     He  must  have  an  organization  simi- 
lar to  the  organization  of  the  large  establishments  and  nearly  as 
complete.    His  overhead  cost  can  not  be  distributed  over  so  large 


148 


MEN  S  FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTBY, 


4 


i 


U  ' 


a  product  as  that  of  the  large  establishments,  and  the  percentage  of 
overhead  cost  is  usually  very  much  larger  on  this  account.  To  a  great 
extent  firms  of  medium  size  manufacture  through  contractors,  and 
hence  can  not  produce  the  same  quality  of  garments  as  can  be  made 
imder  the  direct  supervision  of  large  manufacturers  inside  the  factory. 

Almost  always  medium-sized  establishments  have  a  number  of  con- 
tractors. This  results  in  a  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  goods  sold 
by  the  establishment,  which  is  a  fault  that  manufacturers  try  to 
avoid  and  that  buyers  are  quick  to  notice.  Often  orders  are  re- 
ceived with  the  specification  that  the  garments  must  be  made  up  in 
a  certain  manner  and  must  have  a  certain  appearance.  It  is  hard  for 
the  medium-sized  establishment  always  to  produce  garments  of  speci- 
fied qualities  from  season  to  season,  or  even  during  one  season,  for 
they  are  made  up  by  a  number  of  contractors  who  may  work  for 
a  particular  manufacturer  only  occasionally  and  hence  have  not 
learned  what  his  customers  demand,  or  may  not  have  had  the  oppor- 
tunity to  teach  their  tailors  how  to  produce  garments  for  particular 
customers.  An  organization  requires  a  long  period  of  trainmg  before 
it  is  able  to  produce  just  what  the  manufacturer  or  his  customers 
desire. 

The  very  small  manufacturer,  as  a  rule,  makes  low-grade  garments; 
the  medium-sized  manufacturer,  as  a  rule,  makes  garments  that  are 
of  better  quality  and  higher  cost,  but  usually  a  considerable  part  of 
his  product  is  in  competition  with  the  output  of  the  smaller  manu- 
facturer. 

The  opinion  widely  prevails  in  the  industry  that  the  larger  houses 
are  becoming  larger,  that  the  medium-sized  nouses  are  not  growing 
and  that  many  oi  them  have  gone  out  of  business  in  the  last  fifteen 
years,  and  that  the  very  small  houses  are  becoming  much  more  numer- 
ous and  are  usually  very  successful. 

As  a  rule,  the  small  manufacturer  operates  on  a  different  basis  as 
regards  all  the  costs  entering  into  his  product.  He  is  usually  found 
in  a  district  where  rents  are  low.  He  engages  a  cheap  class  of  labor. 
In  many  districts  where  the  factories  are  small  the  regulatory  laws  are 
not  enforced,  and  the  employees  work  under  conditions  that  would  not 
escape  the  attention  of  the  factory  inspectors  in  more  centrally  lo- 
cated districts.  The  small  manufacturer  has  a  minimum  of  overnead 
cost.  His  office  force  is  small,  consisting  often  of  only  one  or  two  per- 
sons. For  many  of  these  small  factories  the  proprietor  is  the  only 
salesman.  Their  trade  is  almost  entirely  in  the  locality  of  the  factory 
and  the  cost  of  selling  is  very  low. 

Necessarily  each  manufacturer  operating  in  this  manner  can  not  do 
a  very  large  business,  but  when  they  largely  outnumber  the  others  in  a 
clothing  center,  as  they  do  in  some  of  me  larger  cities,  it  can  readily 
be  seen  that  they  might  seriously  affect  the  business  of  manufacturers 
who  have  a  larger  production. 

As  shown  by  table?  in  the  chapter  on  "Cost  and  profit  by  estab- 
lishments," the  percentages  of  manufacturing  profit  earned,  during 
their  last  business  years  by  establishments  witn  net  sales  of  less  than 
$500,000  was  4.74;  by  estabhshments  with  net  sales  of  $500,000  to 
$1,000,000,  4.11;  by  establishments  with  net  sales  of  $1,000,000  to 
$2,000,000,  4.67;  by  estabhshments  with  net  sales  of  over  $2,000,000, 
6.73. 


V 


-    -i«r>    ^ 


|4 


i\ 


MANUFACTURING   CONDITIONS. 


CHANGES  IN  MANTTFACTUEING  AND  TRADE  CONDITIONS. 


149 


.^J. 


The  demand  for  cheap  and  medium-priced  clothing  is  increasing. 
Probably  the  biggest  demand  is  for  medium-priced  goods,  and  a  smaller 
demand  for  very  cheap  and  very  fine  clothes.  Move  fine  clothes  are 
sold  than  formerly,  not  because  those  who  have  been  wearing  cheap 
and  medium  grades  demand  finer  clothes,  but  because  every  year 
more  people  who  formerly  wore  custom  clothes  turn  to  the  ready- 
made.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  tireless  energy  of  some  clothing 
manufacturers  in  working  out  their  patterns  and  styles  to  fit  indi- 
viduals who  formerly  could  obtain  well-fitting  suits  only  from  cus- 
tom tailors. 

PEOPORTIONATE   VALUE   OF  CLOTH. 

Most  of  the  clothing  houses  and  retailers  that  advertise  have  in  the 
past  laid  stress  only  on  the  style  of  the  suit,  the  cut,  the  shade  of 
cloth,  etc.  In  manufacturing  the  greatest  care  has  been  taken  to 
select  novelty  fabrics,  buttons,  etc.,  but  practically  no  attention  has 
been  given  to  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  suit,  namely,  the  quality  of 
the  cloth.  When  purchasing  woolens,  manufacturers  have  been  con- 
cerned mainly  witn  the  effectiveness  of  the  design  as  a  quick  seller. 
During  this  investigation  many  manufacturers,  when  asked  the  per- 
centage of  wool  in  the  cloth  of  their  leading  numbers,  pleaded  ignor- 
ance. They  knew  nothing  of  the  kind  of  wool  or  the  dyes  used  in 
the  fabrics.  Some  of  the  large  houses  that  advertise  and  sell  under 
their  own  brands  go  exhaustively  into  the  merits  of  the  materials 
they  use,  but  the  great  majority  of  manufacturers  are  still  purchas- 
ing materials  for  their  attractiveness  rather  than  for  their  (juahty. 
The  manufacturing  cost,  due  to  ever-changing  styles  and  fabncs,  has 
increased  to  such  an  extent  that  poor-wearing,  cheap  fabrics  are 
generally  used,  even  in  high-priced  suits. 

The  two  following  paragraphs,  quoted  from  the  Daily  Trade  Record 
of  June  2,  1915,  give  the  opinion  of  well- versed  men  of  the  trade  on 
this  question  of  fabrics: 

That  gross  iterance  of  the  component  parts  of  fabrics  exists  to-day  in  the  clothing 
industry  of  this  country,  which  can  be  eliminated  by  the  manufacturers  if  they  would 
but  subject  to  a  thorough  test  all  piece  goods  purchased  by  them,  and  impart  to  the 
retailer  the  accurate  percentages  of  wool  and  cotton  in  fabncs,  is  the  opinion  of  Porter 
M.  Farrell,  buyer  of  clothing  for  the  National  Cloak  and  Suit  Co.,  and  who  perhaps 
buys  as  much  clothing  as  any  other  individual  in  the  coimtnr. 

Mr.  David  o  contends  the  consumer  is  not  getting  the  value  in  merchandise  that 
he  is  entitled  to,  with  special  reference  to  fabric  vaJue.  He  said  that  the  consumer 
has  no  complaint  to  make  with  regard  to  the  cut,  make,  and  trim  of  a  garment,  but 
there  is  a  distinct  lack  of  value  in  the  piece-goods  end,  which  he  believes  is  the  most 
important  end,  and  for  the  betterment  of  the  industry  should  receive  the  attention  of 
the  manufacturers. 

The  following  is  a  concrete  example  of  the  tendency  of  many 
manufacturers.  During  this  investigation  a  New  York  manufac- 
turer who  has  a  reputation  for  making  good  clothing  submitted  a 
coat  to  the  agent  oi  this  Bureau  as  being  one  of  four  or  five  styles 
that  represented  his  business.  The  garment  was  an  overcoat  selling 
to  the  retailer  for  $13.50  gross;  the  pifce  to  the  consumer  was  about 
$18.  The  coat  was  made  of  2 J  yards  of  cashmere,  at  $0.96  per 
yard;  for  body  and  sleeve  linings  3  yards  of  30-inch  silk,  at  $1.50 

•  John  David,  a  large  retail  clothier  of  New  York  City. 


N 


150 


MEN  S  FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


MANUFACTURING   CONDITIONS. 


151 


/ 


I 


per  yard  were  used.  The  fabric  upon  which  depends  the  dura- 
bility of  the  coat  cost  $2.40,  and  the  hning,  which  m  this  case  was 
probably  used  to  enhance  the  appearance  of  the  coat,  cost  $4.50. 

Cloth  is  purchased  from  two  to  nine  months  in  advance  of  its 
bemg  used,  the  usual  period  being  about  six  months.  Nevertheless 
the  manufacturer  often  does  not  receive  his  goods  in  time  to  cut 
them  up  to  fill  orders.  The  mill  will  make  up  a  sample  piece  and 
wait  until  diflFerent  manufacturers  have  ordered  enough  of  Oiat  cloth 
to  make  its  manufacture  profitable.  Or,  if  a  particular  style  of  cloth 
is  "running  big,"  the  mill,  being  unable  to  turn  out  sufficient  to  fill 
all  its  orders  on  that  cloth,  will  distribute  a  smaU  portion  of  his  order 
to  each  manufacturer. 

Mr.  H.  p.  Kohn,  former  president  of  the  National  Association  of 
Clothiers,  in  an  interview  with  an  agent  of  the  Bureau,  said : 

Manufacturing  conditions  would  be  improved  if  mills  would  deliver  materials  in 
accordance  with  arrangements  made,  if  quantities  of  goods  could  be  made  in  advance, 
if  not  so  many  styles  or  models  of  clothing  were  made,  and  if  orders  could  be  depended 
on  as  bona  fide.  Many  economies  in  manufacturing  would  necessarily  follow,  stocks 
would  be  disposed  of  to  better  advantage,  and  there  would  be  less  left-over  material. 

Trimmings,  such  as  linings,  buttons,  haircloth,  and  canvas,  are 
ordered  from  one  to  six  months  in  advance,  but  frequently  are  pur- 
chased as  needed. 

The  spring-season  market  begins  November  15  and  closes  May  15. 
Most  cloths  for  that  season  are  bought  in  June,  July,  and  August. 
They  are  cut  into  swatches  and  taken  out  bv  salesmen,  who  solicit 
orders  in  September,  October,  and  November.  The  manufacture  begins 
in  the  faU  and  continues  through  the  season.  DeUveries  are  generally 
made  after  January  1,  continuing  imtil  spring,  and  the  reorders  are 
received  during  the  spring. 

For  fall  seasons  the  cloths  are  bought  in  December,  January,  and 
February,  and  salesmen  go  out  in  March,  April,  and  May.  Manu- 
facturing extends  from  late  in  the  spring  until  fall  and  the  bulk  of 
dehvery  is  from  September  on.  Reorders  are  received  during  the 
winter. 

In  selling  clothing  long  credits  are  given,  so  that  a  manufacturer 
does  not  receive  payment  for  his  goods  imtil  six  to  eight  months 
after  he  pays  for  his  materials  and  four  to  six  months  alter  he  pays 
for  the  labor. 

In  recent  years  the  clothing  trade  has  experienced  constant  changes 
in  materials,  patterns,  and  styles.  The  broad  athletic  shoulder  and 
peg  trousers  are  no  longer  visible.  Clothes  to-day  must  be  of  the 
natural,  form-fitting  variety.  There  is  evervwhere  a  marked  tend- 
ency to  wear  lighter-weight  materials  throughout  the  year.  In  1900 
the  standard  winter  overcoat  was  made  of  cloth  weighing  30  to  33 
ounces  to  the  yard,  the  winter  suits  of  materials  weighing  18  to  22 
oimces  per  yard,  and  the  spring  suit  of  fabrics  weighing  about  15 
ounces  per  yard.  At  the  present  time  the  weight  of  materials  for 
winter  overcoats  is  24  to  28  ounces  per  yard,  for  winter  suits  13  to 
16  ounces  per  yard,  and  for  spring  suits  10  to  12  ounces  per  yard. 
The  reasons  given  for  these  changes  in  the  weight  of  materials  are  that 
the  homes  and  places  of  business  are  better  heated  and  ventilated 
than  fornierly  and  that  the  general  public  has  come  to  feel  that  very 
heavy-weight  apparel  of  any  kind  does  not  necessarily  make  for 
better  health.    The  marked  changes  in  materials  have  taken  place 


'  -I 


V 


-i. 


14 


not  only  in  the  weight  of  the  material  but  in  the  pattern,  color,  and 
kind  of  the  material  as  well.  Blacks  and  blues  as  staple  suits  are 
no  longer  in  demand.  Everything  is  made  in  fancy  novelty  designs, 
usually  of  the  lighter  colors. 


IMPORTANCE   OF   STYLES. 


Style  is  at  present  of  paramount  importance.  The  consumer  is 
no  longer  satisfied  with  a  suit.  He  wants  lines,  cut,  etc.  The  public 
has  been  taught  to  demand  novelties  imtil  style  is  the  only  consider- 
ation in  purchasing  a  garment.  The  public  has  been  educated  to 
style  by  the  national  advertising  campaigns  of  large  manufacturers 
and  tailors-to-the-trade,  and  the  trimmed  windows  and  show  cases 
of  enterprising  retailers.  So  important  has  become  the  question  of 
style  that  manufacturers,  in  their  eagerness  to  show  something  that 
will  attract  the  purchaser,  are  creating  new  styles  constantly. 
Special  styles  must  be  worn  at  the  races,  at  the  baseball  game,  for 
golfing,  etc. 

Where  formerly  a  complete  set  of  sizes  of  one  model  was  cut  from 
a  single  pattern  of  cloth,  numerous  styles  now  are  cut  from  the  same 
pattern  material.  One  very  old  firm  in  New  York  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing fine  clothes  said  that  formerly  they  had  two  styles  of 
overcoats  and  one  style  of  sack  coat,  the  changes  from  one  season  to 
another  consisting  ot  shortening  or  lengthening  the  coat,  etc.  For 
the  present  season  this  firm  has  19  styles  of  overcoats  and  15  sack 
coats.  This  sample  line  is  small;  many  of  the  larger  houses  show 
hundreds  of  styles  for  a  single  season,  the  hundreds  shown  being  the 
selection  out  of  several  hundred  others  that  were  made  up  and  dis- 
carded. These  changes  in  materials  and  styles  greatly  increase  not 
only  the  hazard  of  the  business  but  the  cost  as  well. 

?alm  Beach  or  tropical  suits  have  recently  come  into  much  promi- 
nence. Originally  they  were  worn  in  continental  United  States  at 
seaside  and  other  summer  resorts,  as  a  fad,  but  their  practicability 
soon  became  impressed  upon  the  public.  At  the  present  time,  in  the 
South,  the  Palm  Beach  suit  takes  the  place  of  other  kinds  of  summer 
clothing  and  large  numbers  of  people  in  all  sections  of  the  country 
have  adopted  it,  as  the  extra  suit,  if  not  for  regular  wear.  The  de- 
mand for  Palm  Beach  suits  has  been  growing  to  such  an  extent  that 
to-day  they  are  an  important  factor  in  the  clothing  trade.  They  have 
made  great  inroads  into  the  regular  summer-clothing  business,  so  that 
many  manufacturers  have  been  compelled  to  add  them  to  their  other 
products  to  keep  their  factories  running.  Palm  Beach  suits  are  not 
absolutely  essential,  as  there  are  other  forms  of  summer  clothing, 
but  they  wear  well  and  wash  well,  and  as  long  as  they  remain  reason- 
able in  price  they  will  continue  to  be  a  factor  in  the  summer-clothing 
business. 


MANUFACTURING  FOR  ORDERS. 


As  the  demand  for  clothing  is  seasonal,  the  great  bulk  of  clothing  is 
manufactured  for  orders  taken  three  to  five  months  in  advance.  A 
warm  winter,  cool  spring,  unseasonable  weather  at  the  opening  of  a 
new  season,  and  doubt  as  what  styles  and  cloths  will  be  in  vogue  are 
aU  important  factors  in  the  trade. 


N 


> 


152 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


V 


A  little  stock  is  usually  manufactured  after  the  first  orders  are  taken 
and  the  manufacturer  has  some  idea  what  styles  and  fabrics  are  going 
to  be  popular.  This  is  true  only  to  a  Umited  extent,  for  generally  a 
buyer  will  not  purchase  a  sample  just  as  it  is  shown.  He  may  select 
the  style  shown  but  with  dinerent  lining  and  buttons,  or  the  same 
style  in  a  different  fabric,  etc.  The  manufacturing  of  stock  on  a  large 
scale  is  generally,  under  present  conditions,  financial  suicide.  The 
tendency  toward  small  orders  is  due  to  the  retailer  going  to  various 
houses  recognized  as  being  speciaHsts  in  certain  grades  of  goods. 
The  changes  in  style  and  faorics  do  not  permit  the  retailer  to  hazard 
purchasing  goods  for  a  long  time  ahead.  There  is  also  a  marked 
tendency  on  the  part  of  the  manufacturer  not  to  overload  the  retailer 
as  he  formerly  did,  because  he  has  at  last  recognized  that  such  over- 
loading is  in  the  long  run  disastrous  to  himself  as  well  as  to  the  retailer. 

Everywhere  except  in  New  York,  where  there  is  more  and  more 
contracting,  the  tendency  is  toward  larger  inside  factories.  There  is 
no  question  as  to  the  advantage  of  the  large  inside  shop  over  the  smaU 
inside  shop.  The  relative  advantages  of  inside  and  contract  shops  are 
discussed  in  the  sections  on  ''Contract  Shop"  and  "Home  Work." 

MAIL-ORDER  HOUSES   AND  TAILORS-TO-THE-TRADE. 

Mail-order  houses,  which  purchase  their  goods  from  the  manufac- 
turer, have  not  disadvantageously  affected  the  wholesale  trade.  The 
tailor-to-the-trade  houses  have,  however,  very  seriously  affected  the 
wholesale  trade.  The  tailor-to-the-trade  house  is  a  combination  of 
the  wholesale  manufacturer  and  the  custom  tailor,  wholesaler  in  that 
he  manufactures  in  large  quantities,  custom  tailor  in  that  he  gives  the 
purchaser  a  suit  cut  to  his  measure.  The  tailor-to-the-trade  house 
is  a  national  advertiser,  and  his  agents  are  the  small  merchants  in 
every  hamlet  and  town.  This  agent  is  given  a  complete  line  of  fabric 
swatches,  together  with  photographs  of  the  various  styles  of  garments. 
He  carries  no  stock.  Tne  prospective  customer  reads  the  advertise- 
ment of  the  tailor-to-the-trade  house  in  a  magazine,  visits  the  ad- 
vertiser's agent  in  his  town,  selects  any  style  and  fabric  and  has  his 
measure  taken  on  a  regularly  provided  form.  The  purchaser  receives 
a  made-to-order  suit  in  the  fabric  and  stvle  he  desires,  which  is  not 
always  possible  in  purchasing  a  ready-made  suit.  The  retailer  makes 
a  profit  without  the  risk  of  having  any  stock  left  over  at  the  end  of  the 
year.  The  tailor-to-the-trade,  combining  these  individual  orders, 
does  a  wholesale  business  with  its  resulting  economies. 

The  tailoring-to-the-trade  houses  have,  since  1910,  taken  from  the 
manufacturers  the  normal  increased  demand  for  ready-made  clothing. 
They  will  continue  to  be  the  chief  competitor  of  the  ready-made  cloth- 
ing manufacturer  in  his  bid  for  increased  business.  The  advantage 
is  all  with  the  tailor-to-the-trade  house.  What  the  clothing  manu- 
facturer will  do  to  offset  these  advantages  is  a  question  upon  which 
depends  the  success  of  the  ready-made  clothing  business. 

SPECIALIZATION. 

There  is  a  marked  tendency  at  present  toward  specialization. 
Many  manufacturers  have  become  dissatisfied  with  the  waste  result- 
ing from  showing  complete  fines.    One  house  will  manufacture  pants. 


MANUFACTURING   CONDITIONS. 


153 


i   X 


{ 


I. 


14 


raincoats,  overcoats,  and  summer  clothing.  Within  the  various 
grades,  good,  medium,  and  cheap,  we  find  certain  firms  specializing. 
One  will  make  worsted  suits  of  a  certain  price,  another  will  manu- 
facture only  suits  or  overcoats  to  sell  to  the  retailer  at  $10.50,  and  still 
another  wul  make  overcoats  only.  Although  it  is  claimed  that  by 
making  a  complete  fine  a  manufacturer  does  away  with  the  seasonal 
fluctuations  in  his  business,  the  cost  of  getting  out  a  complete  set  of 
samples  for  each  of  the  various  lines  manufactured,  to  compete  with 
the  man  who  is  manufacturing  one  fine  only,  is  enormous.  The 
manufacturer  who  makes  a  complete  fine  can  not,  as  a  rule,  buy  his 
goods  as  cheap  as  the  specialist,  for  he  does  not  buy  great  quantities 
of  particular  fabrics,  linir^,  etc.  The  possibihty  of  stock  being  left 
over  is  greater  and  its  distribution  more  difficult.  The  salesman 
must  talk  several  different  commodities  instead  of  one. 

Probably  the  greatest  loss  suffered  by  the  manufacturer  with  a 
complete  line  is  his  lack  of  concentration  on  any  one.  His  judgment 
in  the  selection  of  fabrics  for  one  particular  fine  is  not  the  best.  He 
may  have  a  complete  fine  that  is  tair,  but  the  specialist,  who  buys  in 
quantities,  who  selects  his  fabrics  with  the  purpose  of  manufacturing 
a  particular  thing,  who  adjusts  his  factory  and  trains  his  employees 
for  the  production  of  that  particular  thing,  produces  a  better  article 
at  a  lower  price.  Moreover,  as  a  rule,  retailers  ahd  their  buyers  no 
longer  go  to  houses  to  purchase  a  complete  line  but  go  to  one  house 
for  their  $10.50  suits,  to  another  for  their  $15  overcoats,  etc. 

If  the  speciafist  is  capable  and  produces,  as  he  should  under  a  sys- 
tem of  specialization,  a  garment  that  is  the  best  on  the  market  at 
the  price,  and  the  trade  learns  to  associate  him  with  that  particular 
garment,  enough  business  will  result  to  run  the  plant  during  the 
major  portion  of  the  year.  In  other  industries  the  specialist  has  been 
highly  successful;  the  clothing  specialist  can  likewise  attain  his  goal. 

MANUFACTURING   CLOTHING   NO   LONGER   A   STAPLE   BUSINESS. 

Showing  new  styles  constantly  requires  not  only  a  great  variety 
of  cloths,  much  of  which  is  left  over  at  the  end  of  the  season,  but 
also  an  expensive  designer,  without  whose  services  no  house  can  do 
business.  The  cutting  of  many  different  styles  and  the  making  of 
numerous  samples  and  swatch  books  increase  the  cost  of  manufac- 
turing. The  manufacturer,  as  the  season  progresses,  views  with 
anxiety  the  shelves  loaded  with  novelty  materials  that  can  not  be 
used  next  year,  and  will  cut  prices  on  suits  or  overcoats  made  of 
these  materials  in  order  to  get  rid  of  them. 

Manufacturers  have,  to  their  own  detriment,  educated  the  public 
to  demand  more  stylish  clothes.  The  woolen  mills,  in  the  first 
instance,  were  responsible  for  this  condition  of  affairs.  To  stimu- 
late their  business  they  constantly  made  up  new  cloths  and 
the  mamifacturer  bought  because  the  novelty  would  increase  his 
sales.  His  competitor,  not  to  be  outdone,  bought  other  novelty 
cloths.  The  profits  derived  from  the  increase  of  business  due  to  the 
demand  for  stylish  clothes  are  usually  wiped  out  by  the  increased 
cost  of  manufacturing,  the  loss  resulting  from  cut  prices  on  goods  of 
which  too  much  has  been  purchased,  and  the  depreciation  on  left- 
over fabrics  at  the  end  of  the  season.    Only  the  manufacturer  whose 


154 


MEN  S  FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


K 


purchases  have  been  most  judicious  and  whose  manufacturing  ability 
IS  of  the  highest  derives  any  profit  from  this  stimulation  of  business. 

The  pubuc  educated  to  buy  styUsh  clothes  also  buys  more  ready- 
made  suits  than  formerly.  At  first  glance  this  increase  in  demand 
would  appear  to  prove  profitable  to  the  manufacturer,  but  this  is 
rarely  the  case.  Formerly  suits  left  over  from  one  season  to  another 
could  be  sold  at  the  original  selling  price  or  at  a  small  loss.  At 
present  few  left-over  suits  can  be  sold  at  any  price.  In  the  mad 
rush  of  manufacturers  to  create  new  st3rles,  great  Quantities  of 
novelty  clothes  of  all  sorts  of  fancy  materials  are  made  up,  which 
have  to  be  sold  at  any  cost  during  the  season  in  which  they  are 
manufactured.  Therefore,  toward  the  end  of  the  season  we  find 
manufacturers  selhng  out  their  stocks  at  10  to  50  per  cent  of  the 
original  price,  depending  upon  the  desirabifity  of  the  goods  and 
the  lateness  of  the  season. 

These  conditions  have  caused  many  retailers  to  purchase  for  their 
initial  order  just  what  they  need  for  immediate  use  and  to  wait 
before  purchasing  the  remainder.  Before  long  the  manufacturer 
with  much  novelty  cloth  on  his  hands  becomes  anxious  and  will  sell 
to  this  retailer  at  considerably  lower  prices  than  the  initial  ones. 

This  practice  by  retailers  of  waiting  until  the  season  is  fairly  under 
way  before  placing  the  bulk  of  their  orders  is  increasing,  because  of 
the  ease  with  which  they  can  secure  the  goods  they  want  at  lower 
prices,  by  holding  up  their  orders  until  the  manufacturers  become 
anxious.  This  practice  not  only  destroys  the  value  of  any  cost  cal- 
culations the  manufacturer  may  make,  but  results  also  in  the  ineffi- 
cient speeding  up  of  the  factory  and  overtime  work  during  a  few 
weeks.  The  retailers,  having  placed  their  orders  after  the  season  has 
opened,  insist  on  almost  immediate  shipment  of  goods.  The  manu- 
facturer is  compelled  not  only  to  sell  at  lower  prices  but  to  manu- 
facture in  a  few  weeks  quantities  of  goods  that  should  have  taken 
months,  and  this  hurried  production  greatly  increases  the  cost. 

The  retailer's  purchase  of  a  small  stock  at  the  beginning  of  the 
season  is  made  possible  by  the  introduction  in  almost  every  store  of 
racks  upon  whicn  the  suits  are  hung.    Formerly,  when  the  suits  were 

{)iled  up  in  bundles  upon  the  tables  of  the  retailer,  he  had  to  buy  a 
arge  quantity  at  the  beginning  of  each  season  to  make  the  appear- 
ance oi  carrying  a  large  stock,  but  with  a  rack  20  suits  can  be  spread 
to  cover  the  rack  as  well  as  50. 

CONTBACT  SHOPS. 

Many  manufacturers,  the  smaller  ones  especially,  contract  with 
sponging  houses  to  examine  and  sponge  the  fabric,  or  outer  cloth; 
some  do  their  own  cloth  examining  and  have  the  sponging  done  by 
contract.  Most  manufacturers  let  out  the  sewing-machine  operating 
to  contractors.  The  data  regarding  contract  work  collected  during 
this  investigation  are  shown  in  Table  38,  which  follows: 


V 


-i- 


l-v 


♦  ->.  ^' 


MANUFACTURING   CONDITIONS. 


Table  38.— Extent  op  Contract  Work,  by  Establishments. 


155 


Groups. 

Fabric 
exam- 
ining. 

Spong- 
ing. 

Making 
coats. 

Making 
trousers. 

Making 
vests. 

Group  I.  No  operating  (sewing)  contracted: 

Establishment  No.  1 

No 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

iJi:::::: 

No 

No 

(«) 

Yes 

Ye.s 

No 

No 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

No 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

(«) 

No 

No 

No 

(«) 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

No 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

No 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

No 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

No 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No. 

Establishment  No.  2 

No. 

Establislimcnt  No.  3 

No. 

Estalilishment  No.  4 

No. 

Estal)lishment  No.  5 

No. 

Establishment  No.  6. ., 

No. 

Establishment  No.  7 

No. 

Establishment  No.  8 

No. 

Establishment  No.  9 

No. 

Establishment  No.  10 

No. 

Establishment  No.  11 

No. 

Establishment  No.  12 

No. 

Group  IT.  Part  operating  contra  ted: 

fJstablishment  No.  13 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  14 

No. 

Establishment  No.  15 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  16 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  17 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  18 

Yes. 

Estabiislmient  No.  19 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  20 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  21 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  22 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  23 •.. 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  24 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  25 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  26 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  27 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  28 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  29 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  30 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  31 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  32 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  33 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  34 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  35 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  36 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  37 : 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  38 

Yes. 

Establislimcnt  No.  39 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  40 

Yes. 

Estal)lishment  No.  41 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  42 

No. 

Group  III.  All  operating  contracted: 

Establishment  No.  4A 

Yes. 

Estal)lishment  No.  44 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  45 

Yes. 

Establ  ishment  No.  46 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  47 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  48 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  49 

Yes. 

Establ  ishment  No.50 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  51 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  52 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  53 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  54 

Yes. 

Estaolishment  No.  55 

Yes. 

Kfrt^bUshmAni  No,  HR. 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  .57 

Yes. 

Establishment  No,  58 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  59 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  00 

Yes. 

Esta))lishment  No.  61 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  62 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  63 

Yes. 

Establishment  No.  04 

Yes. 

Total 

Yes,  36.. 

No,  26... 

[a2 

Yes,  38.. 
No.  24... 
o2 

Yes,  43.. 
No,21... 

Yes,  44.. 
No,  20... 

Yes,  50. 
No,  14. 

o  Not  reported. 


\ 


156 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


T 


B£ANUFACrURING   CONDITIONS. 


157 


Contract  shops  may  be  divided  as  follows:  (a)  Inside  shops,  more 
or  less  under  the  supervision  of  the  manufacturer  and  working  exclu- 
sively for  him;  (6)  outside  shops,  not  under  the  supervision  of  the 
manufacturer  employing  the  contractor,  who  may  work  for  one  or 
more  manufacturers,  but  who  usually  gives  preference  to  the  work 
of  one  manufacturer  on  account  of  an  agreement  to  that  effect: 
(c)  contract  shops  working  exclusively  for  one  manufacturer  and 
more  or  less  under  his  control.  The  last,  in  a  sense,  may  be  consid- 
ered the  manufacturer's  own  shops. 

In  this  last  class  the  manufacturer  usually  selects  some  foreman 
or  superintendent  from  his  own  shops  and  sets  him  up  as  a  con- 
tractor; that  is,  furnishes  him  with  the  machinery  equipment  and 
Eays  him  a  stated  price  per  garment  for  making  it,  insteaa  of  paying 
im  a  fixed  salary  for  supervision.  The  contractor,  out  of  the 
amount  received  by  him  for  completed  work,  pays  the  wages  of  his 
employees  and  all  other  expenses  connected  with  his  shop.  The 
money  he  earns  is  the  difference  between  his  costs  and  the  contract 
prices.  In  case  he  operates  the  shop  at  a  loss,  the  manufacturer 
assumes  the  loss  and  cnarges  it  to  the  cost  of  manufacture.  If,  how- 
ever, the  contractor  should  continue  to  operate  the  shop  at  a  loss, 
and  the  manufacturer  should  feel  -that  the  contract  prices  were  fair, 
the  latter  would  seek  another  contractor  to  place  in  charge  of  the 
shop. 

Sometimes  the  contractor  pays  only  his  employees  out  of  the 
amounts  received  by  him  for  completed  work,  the  manufacturer 
paying  all  other  expenses  in  connection  with  the  shop.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  state  that  in  the  latter  case  the  contract  price  would  be 
considerably  less  than  in  the  former  case. 

Some  manufacturers  prefer  to  have  all  garments  made  under  their 

•own  supervision  in  their  own  shops,  and  utilize  contract  shops  only 

in  case  of  necessity.     Some  employ  contractors  for  making  vests  or 

pants  only,  others  employ  contractors  for  making  cheaper  grades  of 

coats,  ana  others  send  all  sewing-machine  operating  to  contractors. 

The  contract  system  prevails  to  some  extent  in  aSl  clothing  centers, 
and  is  more  common  in  New  York  City  than  elsewhere.  Generally 
speaking,  there  is  a  tendency  toward  less  contracting  in  the  making 
of  the  better  grades  of  clothing.  Where  there  is  contracting  for  the 
better  grades,  the  tendency,  especially  among  the  larger  manufac- 
turers, IS  toward  inside  contract  shops  or  toward  outside  contract 
shops  that  the  manufacturers  control. 

Following  are  some  of  the  advantages  which,  it  is  claimed,  accrue  to 
manufacturers  who  employ  the  contract  system: 

1.  When  the  contractor  owns  his  machines  the  investment  of  the 
manufacturer  for  equipment  is  small. 

2.  Manufacturers  relieved  of  labor  responsibilities  can  devote  their 
time  and  energy  to  other  branches  of  their  business. 

3.  Contractors,  more  easily  than  manufacturers,  can  secure  all  the 
help  they  require,  because  the  contract  shops  are  usually  located 
where  the  workers  Hve,  and  because  the  contractors  are  personally 
acquainted  with  most  of  the  workers  in  their  respective  neighbor- 
hoods. 

4.  A  contractor  can  make  up  clothing  cheaper  than  a  manufacturer 
because  he  pays  less  rent,  according  to  space,  frequently  is  his  own 


\ 


—    ^fv"  ^ 


f 

14 


foreman  and  bookkeeper,  and,  owing  to  his  close  personal  supervision, 
he  can  get  more  work  done  for  the  same  wages  than  a  manufacturer 
can  from  his  inside  employees. 

5.  Letting  out  work  on  contract  reduces  the  overhead  costs  of 
manufacturers,  because  during  the  two  dull  seasons  of  the  year  sewing 
machines  do  not  remain  idle  m  the  factory,  and  foremen  of  machine 
operators  do  not  have  to  be  paid  to  hold  the  working  organization 
intact. 

6.  The  contract  system  enables  the  manufacturer  to  know  readily, 
accurately,  and  in  advance,  the  direct  labor  cost  of  each  garment, 
thus  making  cost  finding  easier. 

Some  of  tne  disadvantages  claimed  concerning  the  contract  system 
are  the  following: 

1.  The  manumcturer  having  no  personal  supervision  over  making 
the  garments  in  contract  shops,  the  product  is  lacking  in  uniformity, 
and  often  is  inferior  in  quaUty  to  the  factory-made  product.  Each 
manufacturer  that  lets  out  work  usually  has  several  contractors.  The 
lack  of  uniformity  in  product  arises  from  the  fact  that  several  con- 
tractors make  tne  same  grade  of  garments,  that  the  contractors 
employ  workers  of  different  degrees  of  skill,  and  that  nearly  always 
work  IS  more  hurriedly  done  in  contract  shops  than  in  the  factory. 
Without  supervising  the  machine  operating  and  pressing,  the  manu- 
facturer can  not  emphasize  his  style  features,  which  are  so  important 
in  his  business. 

2.  Frequently  contractors  do  not  dehver  finished  garments  on  time. 
Where  the  manufacturer  has  no  wagons,  the  contractor  that  has  no 
truck  must  hire  an  expressman.  The  expressman  does  not  work  for 
him  exclusively  and  he  often  has  to  wait  imtil  a  trip  is  made.  The 
failure  to  include  certain  parts  when  the  bundles  of  cut  goods  are  sent 
out  necessitates  a  return  to  the  factory.  Lack  of  trimmings  or  wrong 
trimmings  often  hold  up  the  work.  The  contractor's  force,  recruited  • 
from  various  sources  in  the  busy  season,  has  no  stabihty.  As  the 
contractor  often  works  for  several  manufacturers,  and  as  the  work 
from  all  of  them  generally  comes  at  the  same  time,  it  is  natural  for 
him  to  make  up  first  the  goods  of  the  manufacturer  who  suppHes  him 
with  the  largest  amount  of  work  or  who  pays  him  the  highest  price. 
The  goods  of  the  other  manufacturers  wait.  Slow  ddiveries  by 
contractors  often  cause  the  late  shipment  of  goods  ordered  by  cus- 
tomers of  manufacturers,  and  in  many  cases  such  delays*  lead  to 
cancellations  of  orders. 

3.  Aside  from  the  alleged  inefficiency  of  the  system,  the  chief 
objection  made  to  contracting  is  the  insanitary  conditions  under 
which  the  work  is  done.  The  shops  are  generally  located  in  poor 
neighborhoods  where  the  employees  can,  without  hats  or  coats,  get 
to  their  work  in  a  few  minutes.  Despite  State  regulation,  many  of 
the  shops  are  said  to  l)e  filthy,  unswept,  and  unpainted,  and  to  nave 
neither  sufficient  fight  nor  air.  From  a  sanitary  standpoint  the 
contract  system  is  claimed  to  be  a  menace  to  the  worker  and  to  the 
consumer  who  wears  clothing  manufactured  under  such  conditions. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  a  better  quality  of  clothing  can  be 
manufactured  if  all  the  garments  are  made  up  in  the  factory  under 
the  direct  supervision  of  the  management  than  if  the  work  is  let  out 
on  contract.    It  is,  however,  not  definitely  settled  which  is  the  most 


\ 


158 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


>-T/ 


MANUFACTURING   CONDITIONS. 


159 


profitable  method  of  conducting  business,  having  no  contractors, 
or  letting  out  part  or  all  of  the  operating.  As  will  be  seen  by  tables 
in  the  chapter  on  "Cost  and  profit  by  estabhshments"  (p.  52), 
the  largest  average  percentage  of  profit  was  made  by  the  establish- 
ments in  Group  III,  in  which  all  operating  was  contracted,  the  next 
largest  average  was  made  by  Group  I,  in  which  no  operating  was 
contracted,  and  the  lowest  average  was  made  by  Group  II,  in  which 
part  of  the  operating  was  contracted,  but  the  percentages  for  the 
three  groups  differed  so  shghtly  that  the  showing  is  not  conclusive. 
The  contract  system  permits  any  person  with  a  small  capital  to 
become  a  manufacturer.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  rent  a  small  loft, 
hire  a  cutter,  and  send  the  work  to  the  contractor.  As  no  plant  is 
necessary  except  a  cutting  table,  many  cutters,  salesmen,  and  others 
conceive  the  idea  of  entering  the  busmess.  Manv  such  manufacto- 
ries spring  up  every  season,  especially  in  New  York.  Their  existence 
is  possible  only  because  of  the  contractor.  Such  manufacturers  often 
last  only  one  or  two  seasons,  but  they  nevertheless  injure  the  trade. 
In  their  anxiety  to  get  business,  which  is  very  diflBcult  for  a  beginner, 
they  are  generally  compelled,  if  they  are  to  do  any  business  at  all, 
to  sell  at  prices  that  the  regular  manufacturers  can  not  meet. 

HOME  WOBK. 

The  home-work  system,  a  survival  of  the  old  household  stage  of 
manufacturing,  still  exists  to  a  large  extent.  Though  the  system  usu- 
ally is  a  part  of  the  contract  system  and  is  understood  by  most  people 
to  be  connected  with  that  system  only,  there  are  many  large  inside 
houses  that  have  their  work  completed  in  the  homes  of  the  workers. 
Some  of  these  inside  houses  manufacture  the  finest  grades  of  gamients. 
The  extent  of  home  work  could  not  be  ascertained  during  this  in- 
vestigation, because  many  of  the  manufacturers  included  the  wages 
paid  to  home  workers  in  their  direct-labor  pay  rolls,  and  contractors 
rarely  kept  any  records  at  all.  Though  home  work  is  not  increasing, 
it  is  a  very  important  problem  in  the  trade,  especiallv  in  New  York. 
Chicago  has  less  home  work  than  New  York:  m  both  of  these  cities 
this  class  of  labor  is  utilized  to  a  considerably  larger  extent  than  in 
the  other  clothing  centers.  The  foUowing  is  quoted  from  the  annual 
report  of  the  New  York  Commissioner  of  Labor,  1914,  page  77: 

Articles  of  clothing  and  flowers  still  engage  the  greater  number  of  home  workers. 
Out  of  a  total  of  16,849  persona  found  at  work  in  the  home  in  the  whole  State,  15,037 
persons  were  employed  on  these  two  classes  of  articles.  Dividing  the  articles  of  cloth- 
mg  into  two  grades,  custom  and  factory  made,  we  find  8,200  persons  at  work  on  the 
custom  grade  and  6,197  at  work  on  the  factory  grade. 

Outside  of  New  York  the  home-work  problem  is  not  so  important. 
Most  of  the  concerns  are  large,  and  they  have  some  standardization 
of  product.  They  advertise  their  products,  and  since  the  consumer 
has  a  definite  idea  of  the  product  of  a  particular  house,  the  cost  of 
the  advertising  is  wasted  if  one  garment  is  poorer  than  another. 
Most  of  these  houses  complete  their  work  in  the  factory. 

Home  work  consists  principally  of  finishing,  usually  felling  of 
various  kinds  on  coats,  pants,  and  vests,  buttonhole  finishing,  and 
sewing  on  buttons.  The  home  worker  coihpletes  the  garment  after 
the  machine  work  and  basting  has  been  done  in  the  factory  or  shop. 
Machine  work  is  rarely  performed  by  the  home  finisher. 


f 


\ 


I 


V 


^-"^ 


Although  in  some  instances  factory  workers  in  the  busy  season 
take  home  work  to  be  finished,  home  workers  are  usually  not  regu- 
lar workers  in  the  trade,  and  are  not  necessarily  in  a  family  working 
in  the  trade.  Only  a  knowledge  of  plain  sewing  is  necessary  to  do 
homo  work.  The  possession  of  such  little  skill  by  most  immigrant 
women  affords  them  the  opportunity  of  entering  the  trade,  and  gives 
the  users  of  such  help  an  abundant  labor  supply.  A  few  of  the 
workers  are  German  and  Jewish  women,  but  most  of  them  are  Italian. 
Probably  all  home  workers  are  foreign  born. 

Home  workers  are  almost  exclusively  married  women  with  children, 
and  thev  do  not  take  in  this  work,  as  is  so  often  stated,  for  "pin 
money.'^  TTiey  go  into  the  work  to  supplement  their  husband's 
meager  earning,  affected  usuaDy  by  a  seasonal  trade,  in  maintaining 
the  lamily.  Not  able  to  work  in  the  shops,  they  work  at  home. 
They  come  from  even  poorer  classes  than  the  regular  shop  worker, 
and  the  work  does  not  stop  when  the  family  has  established  itself 
in  this  country.  The  contractor's  shop  is  located  in  the  center  of 
the  home  worker's  neighborhood,  and  the  home  finisher  or  her  children 
get  the  work  from  the  shop  and  carry  back  the  completed  garments. 
The  homo  worker  has  no  regular  hours,  but  does  the  finishing  in  what 
time  she  can  snatch  from  her  domestic  work  and  care  of  the  children. 
She  works  usually  at  night,  as  her  time  by  day  is  usually  fully  occu- 
pied with  housework.  The  work  is  done  in  the  living  rooms,  with 
assistance  from  the  children  who  are  old  enough  to  work. 

There  are  many  advantages  to  the  employers  of  home  finishers. 
The  contractor  in  the  busy  season,  when  his  manufacturer  ispressing 
him  for  deliveries,  has  not  sufl[icient  finishers  in  his  shop.  Tiie  shop 
employee  is  not  permitted  by  State  regulation  to  work  more  than  a 
certain  number  of  hours  per  day,  but  a  home  finisher  can  work  when  she 
will.  The  State  prohibits  the  employment,  in  factories,  of  children 
under  certain  ages,  but  the  home  finisher's  children  of  any  age  can 
assist  her  if  they  are  not  detected.  The  contractor  who  is  already 
making  the  most  of  his  space  can  not,  with  the  same  production  and 
price  that  he  is  receiving,  afford  to  rent  the  additional  space  neces- 
sary for  a  full  complement  of  finishers.  The  chief  advantage  from 
employing  home  finishers  is  the  low  price  paid  for  the  work.  The 
home  finisher  is  paid  by  the  piece,  the  finisher  in  the  shop  by  the  week. 
As  home  finishers  can  not  work  in  the  shops,  they  are  dependent  upon 
the  contractor  or  manufacturer  supplying  them  with  work.  The 
contractor  has  taken  advantage  of  this  condition  to  pay  the  home 
finisher  very  low  piece  prices,  which  she  must  accept,  or  lose  the 
opportunity  of  earning  even  that  meager  pittance.  The  contractor 
fosters  the  home-work  system,  for  its  discontinuance  would  necessi- 
tate inducing  a  large  number  of  women  to  work  in  the  shops,  and 
would  result  in  higher  wages. 

The  trade-union  is  opposed  to  home  work  because  home  finishers 
can  not  be  organized  and  because  their  low  wages  are  held  as  a  club 
over  shop  finishers. 

Home  work  is  a  menace  to  the  worker  and  to  the  community. 
The  home  finisher  is  usually  overworked  from  her  domestic  cares. 
Home  work  is  an  extra  burden.  The  home  finisher  usually  has  a  large 
family  that  fully  occupies  her  time  by  day  and  early  evening.  She 
has  no  spare  time  in  which  to  do  finismng  work,  unless  the  hours  after 


160 


MEN  S  FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING  INDUSTRY. 


9  or  10  at  night  are  considered  spare  time.  Children  are  at  work  when 
they  ought  to  be  playing  in  the  iresh  air  and  sunshine  or  asleep  in  bed. 
The  work  is  done  amid  all  conditions  of  filth  and  disease.  Home 
workers  are  not  properly  nourished,  and  their  mode  of  living  and  lack 
of  hygienic  knowledge  make  them  especially  susceptible  to  con- 
tagious diseases,  which  are  often  not  even  reported.  The  Federal 
Government  has  recognized  this  danger  from  disease,  and  contracts 
for  military  garments  now  stipulate  tnat  all  work  must  be  done  in  a 
reojularly  organized  factory,  and  that  no  part  of  the  work  is  to  be 
sublet  to  contractors.  Though  most  States  have  legislation  regulat- 
ing home  work,  supervision  and  inspection  are  so  difficult  that  the 
danger  to  the  wearer  of  a  garment  finished  at  home  has  not  been 
greatly  curtailed.  The  following  is  quoted  from  the  annual  report 
of  the  New  York  Commissioner  of  Labor,  1914,  page  78: 

The  change  made  in  the  law,  which  aims  to  give  the  department  control  over  the 
employment  of  children  in  the  home  under  16  years  of  ago,  is  very  complicated  and 
most  difficult  of  enforcement,  in  fact,  can  not  be  enforced  as  it  is  written.  The  respon- 
sibility sought  to  be  placed  on  the  factory  owner  who  employs  the  parent  to  do  the 
work  in  the  home  can  not  be  made  to  work  out  in  fact,  as  was  desired  in  theory.  To 
make  this  feature  of  the  law  really  effective,  responsibility  should  be  made  t-o  rest 
directly  on  the  jierson,  parent,  or  guardian  having  direct  control  over  the  child,  who 
compels  or  permits  the  little  ones  to  help  with  the  work. 

The  prohibition  of  home  finishing  may,  as  some  claiia,  do  away  with 
one  means  of  making  a  family  self-supporting.  However,  the  price 
paid  by  the  worker  and  the  consumer  does  not  warrant  its  continu- 
ance. Public-spirited  clothing  manufacturers  have  assisted  and  will 
assist  any  attempt  to  abolish  tnis  source  of  danger  to  the  community. 
The  consumer  eventually,  when  sufficiently  educated  to  the  point, 
will  demand  clothing  made  entirely  imder  sanitary  conditions. 

THE  EFFICIENT  CLOTHING  FACTORY. 
THE   FACTORY  AND  ITS   MANAGEMENT. 

The  plant  and  equipment,  the  welfare  of  employees,  the  stand- 
ardization of  work,  and  the  labor  conditions  are  so  important  to 
successful  manufactm-ing  that  the  following  detailed  description  is 
given  of  one  factory  that  appeared  to  the  investigators  to  be  highly 
efficient  and  to  have  achieved  excellent  results: 

The  entire  manufacturing  portion  of  the  factory  chosen  for  descrip- 
tion is  on  one  upper  floor,  the  inside  walls  and  ceiling  of  which  are 
painted  white.  The  paint  has  a  high  gloss  or  porcelain  finish,  and 
can  be  washed.  As  a  complementary  color  a  mouse  or  battleship 
gray  is  used  for  the  base  of  windows,  pUlars,  etc.  This  gray  color,  the 
result  of  many  experiments,  has  been  found  to  be  a  good  neutral  color. 
The  roof  is  of  the  saw-tooth  variety,  so  angled  that  the  north  light 
only  will  enter  the  shop.  All  artificial  lighting  is  overhead  and  the 
distribution  of  the  light  is  even  and  so  arranged  as  to  cast  no  shadows. 
All  machines  are  run  by  electricity. 

Each  employee  has  a  locker  for  clothing,  the  men's  and  women's 
lockers  being  separated.  Shower  baths  for  men  and  special  shoulder- 
high  shower  Datiis  for  women  are  also  provided.  The  toilets  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  wash  rooms.  AH  sinks  and  washbowls  are  of  white 
porcelain.    Sanitary  drinking  spouts,    continuous    running    water, 


•  >'  ^: 


MANUFACTURING  CONDITIONS. 


161 


[ 


-    -^jr 


{    -■ 


i-\ 


liquid  soap,  and  paper  towels  are  conveniently  located  throughout 
the  factory.  The  factory  is  swept  every  night,  the  floors  are 
scrubbed  every  week  and  toilets  every  day,  and  the  windows  are 
washed  every  week. 

In  this  factory  there  are  no  printed  rules.  By  personal  instruction 
the  employee  is  taught  to  do  the  ric^ht  thing.  A  full  working  force  is 
employed  at  all  times.  If  an  employee  leaves,  even  though  another 
is  not  needed  immediately,  the  vacancy  is  nevertheless  filled.  This 
serves  to  hold  the  organization  together  and  gives  the  working  force 
equal  opportunity.  The  practice  of  this  firm,  whenever  necessary, 
is  to  put  the  whole  force  on  part  time  and  not  to  give  part  of  the  or- 
ganization all  the  work. 

The  whole  plant  never  works  overtime,  the  management  being 
fully  convinced  that  overtime  makes  for  inefficiency,  because  it  has  a 
deleterious  effect  on  the  health  of  the  worker.     A  well-trained  worker 

Euts  forth  his  best  efforts  in  his  regular  working  hours,  and  any  effort 
eyond  that  will  affect  his  productivity  the  next  day.  In  cases,  how- 
ever, where  the  '^balance"  of  production  in  a  section  of  the  factory 
is  out  of  equilibrium,  overtime  may  be  worked  by  those  operators 
who  are  behind  in  their  work.  In  any  case  the  total  overtime  must 
never  exceed  six  hours  per  week.  On  week  days  only  one  hour  over- 
time is  permitted.  If  tnree  hours'  overtime  are  to  be  worked  on  Sat- 
urday, which  is  a  short  day,  only  tlu^ee  hours  can  be  worked  on  the 
other  days  of  the  week.  The  consent  of  the  superintendent  and 
general  manager  is  necessary  to  work  overtime. 

Except  Saturday,  which  is  a  short  day,  the  working  day  starts  at 
7  a.  m.  and  ends  at  4.30  p.  m.,  at  which  time,  or  whenever  the  task  for 
the  day  is  completed,  all  machines  and  what  goods  are  finished  are 
covered  for  the  night.  The  day's  work  ends  at  this  early  hour,  so 
that  during  practically  all  the  year  the  work  may  be  done  by  day- 
light. Finishing  at  4.30  p.  m.  also  permits  the  employees  to  take 
advantage  of  the  various  activities  arranged  b v  the  service  department. 

The  employees  are  taught  to  dress  in  simple  fashion,  for  it  has  been 
found  that  a  person  can  not  sit  at  a  machine  and  work  efficiently  in 
clothes  that  are  unsuited  for  the  work  done  in  the  factory.  The  wear- 
ing of  a  bracelet,  for  example,  not  only  hampers  the  arm  movements 
but  is  dangerous. 

This  factory  is  one  of  the  few  that  has  not  lost  some  of  its  effective- 
ness because  of  its  size.  The  personal  relation  between  employer 
and  employee,  which  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  is  lost  in  most 
large  factories,  where  the  worker  knows  only  the  foreman  or  superin- 
tendent, and  where  the  employer  is  only  a  name.  In  this  factory 
the  owner  knows  every  employee.  He  calls  them  by  their  first  names 
and  knows  all  their  home  affairs.  On  his  rounds  through  the  fac- 
tory he  will  stop  and  chat  for  a  few  mmutes  with  Mary  about  her 
father's  health,  with  Tom  about  his  savings  account,  etc.  Because 
of  the  mutual  understanding  and  good  feeling  between  employer  and 
einployees,  assistant  foremen  have  been  found  unnecessary. 

The  owners  of  this  factory  believe  that  the  point  of  efficiency  is  not 
to  create  tests  to  discover  a  good  man,  but  to  take  the  worker  who  is 
of  the  proper  timber  and  tram  him  to  be  efficient.  A  department  of 
trained  and  expert  instructors  i?  maintained.    An  instructor  will  train 

U914*»— 16 11 


J 


162 


men's  factoby-made  clothing  industry. 


"green  hands"  in  correct  methods  and  impress  them  with  the  impor- 
taiice  of  a  high  quality  of  workmanship.  If  necessary,  the  instructor 
will  call  in  an  expert  from  the  time-study  department.  Instruction  is 
based  upon  a  scientific  determination  of  the  one  best  way,  by  motion 
and  time  studies  and  by  actual  try-outs,  which  has  resulted  in  maxi- 
mum production  with  minimum  effort.  Recognizing  that  speeding 
up  is  not  to  be  accomplished  by  driving,  but  by  standardization,  this 
factory  insists  that  the  operation  must  be  performed  in  one  stand- 
ard way  and  no  other.  For  every  operation  in  the  factory  directions 
are  printed  on  a  card,  which  is  given  to  the  operator.  A  copy  of 
one  of  these  cards  follows,  the  time  being  expressed  in  hundredths 
of  a  minute: 

Operation,  2  flaps  and  1  welt  sewed  around. 


Sewing  machine.  Singer  44-8. 
Speed,  2,400  R.  P.  M.;  stitches,  8;  needle  2. 
Foot,  J  gauge;  feed,  regular. 
Attachments,  trimming  knife. 

Pressing  machine. 


Seat,  chair.    Height:  F.,  17^;  R.,  16i. 

Table,  machine.    Height,  29. 

Work  container,  tray  28  by  18J  by  5,  on  top  of  stand 

30  by  20  by  16  high,  with  edge  to  hold  tray. 
Waste  container. 
Tools,  7-inch  shears. 
Construction  material:  Panama  linen  stays  cut  to 

designer's  pattern,  with  identifying  notches  cut 

therein.    3-line  40  cotton  thread. 


u. 

E. 

A 

1 

B 

2 

C 

3 

D 

4 

E 

5 

F 

6 

G 

7 

H 

8 

I 

9 

J 

10 

K 

11 

L 

12 

M 

13 

N 

14 

o 

15 

P 

16 

Q 

17 

R 

18 

8 

19 

Description. 


Open  up  one  set  flaps  and  welt,  then  match  welt  and  stay 

Sew  together^  then  pull  clear  of  machine  and  cut  thread  with  shears 

Trim  welt  with  hand  shears '], 

Match  welt  and  lining  and  place  in  machine '...........'.'..'.['. 

Sew  across  top  of  welt,  joining  lining .....'. 

Remove  and  place  in  machine  again  at  end  of  welt ...'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

Sew  across  end  of  welt '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

Remove  and  place  in  machine  again  at  other  end  of  welt '....'.'...'.'.'.  .'.'.'.'.'.I 

Sew  across  end  of  welt,  break  thread  between  two  end  seams,  then  pull  cleiur  oif  ina^ 

chine  without  breaking  thread 

Match  flap,  stay ,  and  lining 

Place  in  machine ,  start,  depress  trimmer,  sew  together  and  trim  aroimd  three  sid^, 

raise  trimmer,  finish ,  then  pull  clear  of  machine  without  breaking  thread 

Match  flap,  stay,  and  lining 

Place  in  machine,  stiu-t,  depress  trimmer,  sew  together,  and  trim  around  three  sides, 

raise  trimmer,  finish,  then  pull  clear  of  machine  and  cut  thread  with  shears 

Roll  one  welt  and  two  flaps  together  and  place  in  tray  at  left 

Total  operation  time,  one  welt  and  two  flaps 

Time  allowed  for— 

Rethreading  needle o.  02 

Removing  and  replacing  bobbin 02 

Marking  batch  number  and  count  on  time  slip  and  taking  away  work 01 

Getting  and  opening  up  new  work 01 

Unavoidable  delays 05 

Total  time  allowed  pw  unit  of  production 

Total  operation  and  allowed  time  per  unit  of  production 


Time. 


0.09 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.03 
.05 
.02 
.05 

.04 
.07 

.06 
.07 

.07 
.07 


.74 


.11 


.85 


A  record  is  kept  of  the  earnings  of  each  employee  for  every  week  in 
the  year.  These  records  are  examined  every  day  to  see  how  em- 
ployees are  doing.  The  service  department  does  not  wait  for  an 
employee  to  make  a  complaint.  If  an  employee's  wages  are  decreas- 
ing, he  is  summoned  for  an  interview,  and  the  causes  for  the  decrease 
are  sought  for,  found,  and  eliminated.  If  promotion  is  not  fast 
enough,  the  reason  is  sought  and,  when  found,  eliminated.  The 
service  department  makes  its  recommendation  to  the  various  super- 
intendents and  foremen  and  the  general  manager,  and  all  work 
together  to  aid  the  employee  in  question.     For  each  employee  a 


^- 


L~% 


X, 


1} 


MANUFACTURING   CONDITIONS. 


163 


sheet  is  kept  showing  his  record  for  six  months,  in  fortnightly  periods. 
Following  is  one  of  these  records  for  a  two- weeks  pay  period: 


Name:  Mary  Smith. 
Operation:  Coats  seamed. 
Class  rate:  I0.30-$n.24.o 


No.  142. 


Day. 


Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday. 
Thursday... 

Friday 

Saturday... 


Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday. 
Thursday... 

Friday 

Saturday.... 


January. 


Hours 
worked. 


11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 


7k 
8! 

4i 


SI 

8 

81 

8| 
c9| 

4i 


Daily 
earnings. 


S2.383 
2.292 
2.58 

6  2.625 
2.428 
1.215 


703 
368 
519 


6  2.580 
2.826 
1.206 


Cumula- 
tive 
earnings. 


S2.3S3 

4.675 

7.255 

9.880 

12.308 

13.523 


16.226 
18.594 
21. 113 
23.699 
26.525 
27. 791 


Total  earnings S27  79 

Number  of  hours  worked 93\ 

Average  per  hour l.ill!!li.!.!!!!!!!!!!!!!I!!II!I!I!I!I  $0  29t 

a  The  class  rate  for  this  operation  Ls  from  24  to  30  cents  per  hour.  The  emplovee  must  earn  more  than  24 
cents  per  hour  to  work  on  this  operation.  * 

6  On  these  days  the  worker  was  changed  to  another  operation  to  help  out  and  was  paid  the  flat  rate  of 
her  hourly  average  earnmgs  on  her  regular  operation.  »««*« 

e  Overtime. 

By  inserting  letters  next  to  the  number  of  hours  worked,  records 
are  kept  of  tardiness,  going  home  a/ter  being  excused,  etc.  The  form 
also  stipulates  the  number  of  garments  returned  for  correction  during 
the  two-weeks  period  and  the  number  of  merit  marks  received  by  the 
operator.     This  record  can  be  used  in  making  up  the  pay  roll. 

An  employee  can  be  discharged  only  upon  a  written  recommenda- 
tion, approved  by  the  proper  superintendent  and  by  the  service  de- 
partment, and  the  employee  has  the  privilege  of  seeing  the  general 
manager  personally.  Employees  as  a  rule  are  not  discharged.  If  a 
girl  is  not  suitable  for  one  operation,  she  is  trained  for  another,  until 
the  operation  has  been  found  for  which  she  is  best  suited.  An  em- 
olovee  may  be  discharged  for  drunkenness,  lack  of  cooperation,  or 
lack  of  adaptabihty  to  any  operation,  but  in  the  latter  case  the 
factory  endeavors  to  find  a  suitable  position  for  him  before  he  is 
discharged. 

No  employee  who  has  been  absent  can  return  to  work  before  report- 
ing to  the  office.  Girls  who  are  absent  without  having  spoken  of  it 
previously,  are  visited  by  an  officer  of  the  service  department. 
Employees  are  shown  that  absence  or  tardiness  throws  their  section 
behind  and  causes  other  employees  to  lose  money.  A  sheet  is  sent 
to  the  office  every  day  showing  the  names  of  returned  absentees,  the 
reasons  for  their  absences,  the  time  during  which  they  were  absent, 
and  whether  or  not  they  were  excused;  the  names  of  quitters  and 
new  employees,  and  the  names  and  excuses  of  tardy  employees. 

This  factory  maintains  a  time-study  and  a  machine  department, 
each  in  charge  of  experts.  Together  they  work  out  the  best  speed  for 
every  machine  used  in  various  operations,  decide  on  the  best  arrange- 
ment of  the  work  boxes,  attachments,  feeds,  and  all  conditions  of 


164 


MEN  S   FACTOBY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTEY. 


^  >  fi> 


MANUFACTURING   CONDITIONS. 


165 


operation.  These  departments  are  also  constantly  experimenting 
with  old  and  new  machinery. 

An  operator  in  this  factory  never  oils  or  cleans  a  machine,  or  ad- 
justs a  belt,  etc.  This  work  is  done  by  the  machine-repair  depart- 
ment. OiUng:  a  machine  reauires  a  great  deal  of  skill,  for  too  much 
or  too  Uttle  oiling  will  cause  aamage  and  waste.  The  first  season  that 
operators  in  this  factory  were  not  permitted  to  oil  their  machines,  oil 
spots  on  goods  decreased  75  per  cent.  Every  machine  in  the  shop  is 
oiled  twice  a  day  and  some  machines  as  often  as  four  times  a  day. 

Two  or  three  times  a  week,  at  a  meeting  of  all  the  superintendents, 
current  factory  problems  are  discussed  and  ideas  for  improvements 
are  considered. 

Orders  that  come  in  are  put  in  a  lot  ledger  arranged  according  to 
the  model  and  style  of  goods.  Orders  are  so  distributed  in  the  lot 
ledger  as  to  show  the  customers'  numbers  and  the  sizes  ordered  by 
each.  Cutting  orders  are  made  up  from  the  lot  ledger,  which  permits 
all  lots  of  one  kind  to  be  bulked.  When  the  cutting  order  is  returned 
from  the  marker,  it  is  sent  to  the  lining  department,  and  the  linings  are 
cut  from  the  same  order.  The  plaiming  department  of  the  cutting 
room  arranges  these  orders  with  a  view  both  to  the  time  in  which  they 
are  needed  for  the  purpose  of  filUng  orders  and  to  the  proper  distribu- 
tion for  manufacturing  purposes.  It  might  be  well  to  point  out  that 
most  factories  cut  their  goods  when  they  are  ready  to  make  them  up, 
thus  often  losing  the  savings  of  bulk  cutting.  In  this  factory  the 
goods  are  cut  and  stored,  to  be  taken  out  and  used  whenever  needed. 

Every  model  when  originated  is  analyzed  by  means  of  a  model 
analysis  sheet,  which  classifies  and  values  for  purposes  of  manufac- 
ture the  different  model  variations.  These  values  determine  the 
number  of  the  particular  model  in  question  that  is  to  be  put  into 
work  for  the  purposes  of  efficient  manufacture.  Each  moocl  sheet 
has  the  number  of  that  model  to  bo  put  into  a  thousand  units  of 
manufacture.  Wlien  the  cloth,  lining,  or  other  parts  are  cut,  they 
are  routed  to  a  particular  box  by  having  the  box  number  entered 
upon  the  cutting  order.  In  this  way  all  parts  are  collected  and 
assembled  from  the  various  cutting  operations  and  remain  in  storage 
for  distribution.  When  the  cutting  card  is  finally  returned  to  the 
planning  clerk,  a  small  auxiliary  card,  known  as  the  shop  manufac- 
turing card,  is  made  out.  These  are  filed  with  the  planning  clerk 
and  each  represents  a  batch  of  garments  in  the  storeroom  ready  to 
be  distributed  for  manufacture.  With  the  aid  of  the  model  anal- 
ysis sheet,  the  planning  clerk  distributes  the  work  on  hand  in  tJie 
storeroom,  assigning  to  it  both  a  place  andean  order  of  manufacture 
bv  means  of  a  numbering  system.  The  batch  or  route  number  is 
placed  on  each  manufacturing  card  by  the  planning  clerk  for  this 
purpose.  When  this  has  been  done,  tickets  are  macie  out,  all  part 
tickets  showing  the  batch  number.  This  enables  the  proper  order 
to  be  maintained  throughout  all  processes  of  manufacture.  The 
issuance  of  the  shop  manufacturing  card  by  the  planning  clerk  is  not 
only  the  basis  of  making  out  the  tickets,  but  also  constitutes  a  requi- 
sition to  the  storeroom  for  ordering  work  out  to  the  factory. 

The  manufacturing  card  at  all  times  accompanies  the  goods.  When 
goods  are  issued  to  the  workshop  the  card  accompanies  them  to  the  first 
route  clerk.     The  route  clerk  assigns  the  work  to  each  operator.  The 


( 


% 


■i^ 


1> 


operator  must,  however,  get  up  and  take  the  work  from  a  conven- 
iently-located ledge  or  table.  This  is  insisted  upon  by  the  factory. 
Sitting  at  a  machme  constantly  puts  the  operator  on  edge  and  keeps 
her  ''keyed  up."  This  walking  a  short  distance  in  order  to  get  her 
work,  acts  as  a  relaxation  and  a  relief  from  fatigue  and  has  been  found 
more  effective  than  definite  rest  periods.  For  the  same  reason  an 
operator  must  go  to  a  small  conveniently  located  supply  room,  a  sort 
01  substation  oi  the  main  supply  room,  for  her  thread,  buttons,  and 
cut  trimmings.  A  girl  requirmg  a  new  spool  of  thread  must  return 
the  empty  one. 

The  arrangement  is  such  that  goods  pass  from  one  operation  to 
another  with  the  least  loss  of  time.  This  factor  is  one  that  is  usually 
disregarded  in  the  clothing  trade  and  one  that  to  a  great  extent  is 
responsible  for  smaller  production. 

The  route  clerk  marlra  the  number  of  operations  performed  by  each 
operator  on  a  specially  prepared  slip,  which  is  attached  to  the  oper- 
ator's machine.  This  sHp  is  printed  and  contains  500  very  small 
squares  representing  the  piece  price  per  operation  multiplied  by  the 
number  of^  operations  penormed,  from  1  to  500.  This  slip  serves  as 
a  basis  for  the  pay  roll,  and  at  the  close  of  the  day's  work  is  handed 
to  the  foreman,  who  turns  it  in  to  the  office. 

Descriptive  tickets  are  put  on  those  parts  of  the  garments  that  are 
made  separately.  This  ticket  by  number  or  letter  denotes  the  batch 
number,  size,  shade,  single  or  double  stitch,  class  of  trimming,  color 
of  thread,  hand  or  machine  buttonholes,  etc.  These  tickets  are  made 
from  the  manufacturing  card,  and  are  important,  as  they  prevent 
different  shades  of  cloth  being  used  in  the  same  garment,  the  using 
of  the  wrong  shade  of  thread,  etc. 

Every  operating  section  has  a  signboard  which  starts  clean  every 
morning.  In  the  office  a  task  is  set,  that  is,  so  many  coats,  or  trou- 
sers, or  vests,  are  to  be  turned  out  that  day.  This  task  is  given  to 
the  foreman,  who  in  turn  set  the  tasks  for  the  various  operations,  so 
that  at  the  end  of  the  day  the  factory  task  set  by  the  office  will  have 
been  accomplished.  The  foremen  chalk  up  on  the  various  signboards 
the  task  for  each  operation,  above  whicn  the  route  clerk,  when  a 
batch  is  completed,  posts  the  number  finished  up  to  that  time.  These 
figures  are  changed  whenever  a  batch  is  completed.  Thus  at  any 
hour  of  the  day  the  foremen  and  the  workers  have  always  before 
them,  not  only  what  they  have  to  accomplish,  but  also  what  has 
already  been  accomplished.  When  the  task  for  any  operation  has 
been  completed  before  the  general  closing  time,  the  employees  on 
that  operation  are  not  permitted  to  remain  around  the  machines, 
but  must  leave  the  factory  floor,  going  to  the  game  room,  shower 
rooms,  or  home.  If  one  section  is  compelled  to  wait  for  another, 
which  is  unusual,  the  employees  of  the  waiting  section  must  go  to 
the  game  room,  where  a  woman  reads  to  them,  or  where  they  may 
play  games,  etc. 

The  setting  of  the  task  for  the  day  is  a  question  of  keeping  the 
shop  "balance."  It  is  known  how  many  units  the  shop  can  turn  out 
efficiently  in  a  day,  and  the  task  is  set  to  maintain  this  balance. 
This  assures  sufficient  work  for  every  day  in  the  year.  If  there  is 
too  much  or  too  httle  work  at  the  establisned  balance,  the  balance  is 
changed. 


166 


men's  factoby-made  clothing  industry. 


^T 


With  the  manufacturine;  card  come  small  red,  OTcen,  or  yellow 
tickets,  which  show  the  lot  number,  batch  number,  model,  and 
amount.  A  red  ticket  signifies  that  the  goods  are  to  be  rushed. 
This  does  not  mean  ordinarily  that  they  will  be  made  up  quicker,  but 
that  they  are  given  preference;  that  is,  they  will  be  put  into  work 
first.  Wliere  a  special  rush  is  required  a  route  clerk  remains  with 
the  batch  and  follows  up  the  work  from  one  section  to  another.  The 
green  ticket  denotes  custom  work,  which  is  to  be  rushed  also.  This 
ticket  is  to  distinguish  custom  work  (made-to-order  specials  for  cus- 
tomers), so  that  if  an  inquiry  is  received  from  the  customer,  it  will 
be  possible  to  tell  where  the  garment  is  by  looking  at  the  control 
board,  and  to  rush  it  through  ilnecessary.  The  yellow  ticket  denotes 
regular  work.  If  for  some  reason  one  batch  can  not  follow  in  its 
regular  order,  a  blue  ticket  similar  to  the  yellow  one  is  made  out  and 
passed  in  regular  order  to  the  next  section.  The  yellow  ticket  remains 
in  whatever  section  it  happens  to  be.  A  blue  card  is  made  out  at 
the  same  time  for  the  route  clerk  and  the  workers,  so  that  they  will 
lose  no  time  looking  for  that  batch.  When  the  cause  for  the  delay 
has  been  eliminated,  this  batch  is  given  the  preference. 

Each  department  (coats,  vests,  and  trousers)  has  a  large  wooden 
board  called  a  control  board  on  which  there  is  a  space  for  each  section 
of  a  department.  On  a  ticket  at  the  top  of  this  space  is  the  number 
of  units  that  have  been  turned  out  by  this  section,  and  below  the 
number  of  units  still  in  process.  These  little  tickets  hang  on  hooks, 
and  when  a  batch  is  completed,  the  ticket  is  taken  off,  and  the  amount 
of  it  is  added  to  the  numoer  registered  as  having  been  turned  out  and 
deducted  from  the  amount  registered  as  being  still  in  work.  The 
ticket  is  passed  on  to  the  next  section  and  hung  up,  being  added  to 
the  amount  already  registered  as  being  work  in  process  in  that  section. 
The  route  clerk,  upon  the  completion  of  a  baton  in  a  section,  notified 
a  clerk  in  charge  of  the  control  board,  who  makes  the  necessary 
changes  on  the  board  and  on  the  route  clerk's  manufacturing  card. 

Each  section  has  also  two  little  tickets  showing  the  maximum  and 
minimum  amount  of  work  that  should  be  done  in  that  section  in 
order  to  assure  efficient  production.  From  these  minimum  and  maxi- 
mum cards  the  flow  of  work  is  regulated.  Assuming  that  there  are 
four  sections  and  that  the  first  two  are  in  ''balance, '  and  the  third 
is  in  excess  of  the  maximum,  the  task  of  the  first  two  would  be  reduced 
so  that  section  three  would  receive  less  work.  This  would  continue 
until  section  three  was  again  in  ''balance."  If,  however,  section  two 
is  under  "balance"  and  section  one  is  in  "balance,"  the  task  would 
be  increased  in  the  first,  lowered  in  the  second,  and  increased  in  the 
third  section. 

In  the  general  manager's  office  is  a  large  control  board  for  the  entire 
factory,  a  glance  at  which  informs  him  as  to  how  the  factory's  pro- 
duction is  progressing.  The  following  chart  will  show  a  section  of 
this  control  board.  Tlie  figiu-es  used  do  not  represent  the  actual 
production; 


V 


-4.- 


1) 


MANUFACTUETNG   CONDITIONS. 
SACK  COATS. 

spRma  1915.  RPRiNa  1914. 


167 


(A) 


(B) 


(C) 


(D) 


(E) 


(F) 


26002 

34076 

' 

20567 

28910 

5435 

5166 

210 

Daily. 
312 

Wk.  Cu'ml. 
1680 

.  *       '                                   .      ' 

(A)  Estimated  number  to  be  made  that  season  from  orders  in  the  house.    These 
figures  are  changed  every  two  weeks. 

(B)  Number  produced  to  date.    These  figures  are  changed  daily. 

(C)  Balance  to  be  made. 

CD)  Number  of  cut  goods  in  the  storeroom  ready  to  be  put  in  work. 

(E)  Finished  garments  shipped  on  the  given  date. 

(F)  Finished  garments  shipped  to  date  in  the  current  week. 

A  similar  arrangement  is  made  on  the  same  board  for  trousers, 
vests,  and  overcoats. 

THE   WAGE   AND  TASK   SYSTEMS. 

All  wage  systems  are  to  reward  labor  for  its  effort  in  proportion  to 
that  effort  over  a  given  period  of  time.  Most  systems  take  into 
consideration  the  time  period,  but  do  not  consider  that  every  worker 
in  an  organization  expects  a  reward  (sharing  of  the  profits)  in  pro- 
portion to  his  effort  and  ability.  The  time  method  is  very  simple, 
so  much  per  week,  day,  or  hour.  The  two  usual  methods  of  reward, 
daywork  and  piecework,  are' good  in  some  respects  and  bad  in  others. 
The  day  method,  as  ordinarily  applied,  leaves  out  the  question  of 
effort,  no  additional  return  for  better  or  greater  effort  being  given. 
The  piecework  method,  as  ordinarily  applied,  is  not  based  on  accurate 
standards  and  reduces  the  piece  price  to  absolute  bargaining  or  guess- 
work. Piecework,  however,  has  an  element  of  reward  for  effort.  A 
day  rate  could  be  applied  accurately  and  would  be  acceptable  if 
something  were  added  in  the  nature  of  a  bonus  for  effort.  This 
would  be  a  combination  of  day  and  piece  rates,  of  which  the  premium 
or  bonus  system  is  an  outgrowth.     Whether  recognized  or  not,  time 


'T*ir 


168 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


is  an  essential  element.  The  whole  wage  system,  to  be  fair,  necessi- 
tates a  fair  return  for  effort  expended  over  any  given  time,  and  as  a 
rule  it  is  because  piece  rates  nave  not  been  considered  from  this 
point  of  view  they  have  failed  to  give  satisfaction.  Piecework  has 
that  which  daywork  has  not — the  mcentive  to  increase  production; 
but  ordinarily  the  gain  in  speed,  with  its  rcsidting  higher  pay,  leads 
to  the  piece  rate  being  reduced.  A  wage  system,  to  be  fair  and  sys- 
tematic, must  be  direct,  simple,  and  absolutely  safeguarded  against 
abuse. 

What  is  a  fair  pay  for  a  fair  amount  of  effort?  The  factory 
described  has  taken  tne  problem  out  of  the  realm  of  bargaining  by 
applying  scientific  management  and  by  recognizing  not  only  that 

food  pay  is  a  deserved  reward  for  a  good  amount  of  effort,  but  that  a 
igh  rate  of  pay  is  an  incentive  to  the  best  efforts  of  the  worker,  and, 
further,  that  a  high  wage  does  not  mean  high  cost  but  is  a  basis  for 
low  cost. 

To  take  this  matter  out  of  the  realm  of  dispute,  and  to  recognize 
what  is,  and  should  bo,  uppermost  in  the  mind  of  the  worker — not 
only  immediate  earning  opportunity  but  the  opportunity  to  advance — 
this  factory  has  evolved  the  following  system:  AH  operations  are 
classified  so  that  operations  requiring  the  same  skill,  age,  and  effort 
fall  in  the  same  class.  From  an  investigation  of  actual  time-study 
records  and  the  experience  of  efficiency  experts,  rates  have  been 
determined  for  each  class  of  work.  These  rates  are  the  best  rates 
paid  for  each  class  of  work  in  the  best  shops  doing  the  same  grade  of 
work  in  that  locality.  The  factory  started  with  these  rates  as  a 
minimum  rate  for  each  class.  As  a  standard  rate  of  pay,  25  per 
cent  more  than  the  minimum  rate  is  paid  in  each  class,  as  follows; 


MrniMUM   RATE. 


32  cents  per  hour. 
28  cents  per  hour. 
24  centa  per  lioiir. 
20  cents  per  hour. 
16  cents  per  hour. 


STANDARD 


40  cents 
35  cents 
30  cents 
25  cents 
20  cents 


RATE       (mTNTMUM       RATE +25 
PER  cent). 

per  hour, 
per  hour, 
per  hour, 
per  hour, 
per  hour. 


This  classification  makes  a  distinct  standard  for  each  class  of  worker. 
It  recofljnizes  differenecs  in  the  valuation  of  skiU,  effort,  etc.,  and 
establishes  stages  by  which  a  worker  can  advance.  The  workers  are 
encouraged  to  apply  for  positions  in  any  class. 

The  only  remaining  question  is,  What  is  a  fair  hour's  work  ?  This 
is,  fortunately,  not  a  question  of  judgment,  for  there  has  been 
developed  in  recent  years  the  science  of  time  and  motion  study, 
which  standardizes  conditions  of  operation.  This  factory's  time- 
study  department,  with  the  experts  from  the  machine  department, 
detemiines  the  best  speed  at  which  to  run  the  machines  for  each 
operation,  the  arrangement  of  the  work  boxes,  attachments,  feeds, 
and  all  other  conditions  of  operation.  These  conditions  are  studied 
by  the  time-study  and  machine  departments  with  the  cooperation  of 
other  experts  and  the  operators  themselves. 

Time-study  gives  accurate  proof.  These  conditions  must  be 
maintained  by  periodic  inspections  and  by  a  properly  organized 
maintenance  and  repair  department.     It  is  only  when  conditions 


.^ 


I 


% 


-  i. 


fl 


1/ 


■'    S 


MANUFACTURING   CONDITIONS. 


169 


have  been  standardized,  properly  recorded,  and  made  a  part  of  the 
instruction  sheet,  that  time-study  relative  to  the  personal  effort  of 
an  operator  can  be  of  value. 

The  chief  function  of  time-study  is  dividing  an  operation  into  its 
various  elements,  so  that  the  elements  can  be  accurately  studied. 
This  division  gives  a  wide  field  of  comparison,  inasmuch  as  the  same 
element  repeats  itseff  often  in  the  various  operations.  It  eliminates 
the  possibility  of  a  material  error.  Allowances  are  made,  however, 
for  possibihties  of  error,  delay,  fatigue,  emergencies,  and  other 
factors. 

This  factory  also  uses  a  productagraph  machine  to  check  the  time 
necessary  to  complete  an  element.  In  the  case  of  the  more  impor- 
tant elements  the  machine  is  used  to  test  one  operator  for  a  week. 
This  machine  is  used  also  to  make  sure  that  the  allowance  time  for 
personal  necessities  is  correct,  to  determine  other  factors  that  hinder 
production,  and  to  discover  the  causes  for  fluctuation  in  production. 
The  use  of  this  machine  has,  for  example,  led  this  factory  to  purchase 
wound  bobbins,  on  which  the  thread  is  cross  wound,  so  that  the 
tension  is  uniform.  After  a  time-study  it  was  found  that,  though  the 
cross-wound  bobbin  costs  20  per  cent  more  for  the  material,  it  saves 
50  per  cent  of  the  time  required  to  adjust  difficulties  arising  from 
breaking  thread,  etc. 

The  nimtiber  of  units  completed  by  an  operator,  as  shown  by  the 
productagraph  record,  and  the  number  of  idle  minutes  from  7.30  to 
11.30  a.  m.,  are  given  in  the  following  table: 


Time. 


7.30  to  8.30  a.  m 

8.30  to  9.30  a.m.... 
9.30to  10.30  a.m... 
10.30  to  11.30  a.m.. 

Total,  4  hours 

Average  per  hour. . , 


Edges 
stitched. 


Units. 
16.00 
19.00 
19.00 
25.00 


79.00 


19.75 


Idle 
time. 


MiniUes. 

12.15 

7.69 

7.84 

5.61 


33.19 


8.30 


To  measure  and  standardize  a  worker's  effort  and  his  reward  it  is 
essential  that  a  task  bo  set.  The  basis  of  output  in  this  factory  is 
one  hour,  and  the  task  is  the  standard  of  individual  hourly  production. 

In  setting  the  task  an  operation  is  analyzed  into  its  easily  distin- 
guishable parts  or  elements,  and  an  observer  then  notes  by  the  aid  of 
a  stop  watch  the  time,  in  minutes  and  hundredths  of  a  minute,  re- 
quired to  perform  these  elements  of  the  operation.  The  number  of 
observations  taken  depends  on  the  complexity  of  the  operation  and 
the  number  of  people  employed  thereon.  Usually  hundreds  of  ob- 
servations are  taken,  the  operation  being  performed  always  in  the 
same  manner,  according  to  the  instruction  sheet,  which  is  based  on 
what  is  considered  to  be  the  one  best  method  of  performing  that 
operation.  These  element  times  are  posted  on  sheets,  and  the  time 
that  occure  oftenest  or  may  be  said  to  be  common  to  two  or  more 
operators  is  selected  as  the  standard  time  for  that  element.  Each 
element  in  turn  is  similarly  treated.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule 
is  where  the  times  are  very  variable,  as  in  some  hand  operations,  in 


170 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


^   V"^ 


MANUFACTURING  CONDITIONS. 


171 


u 


i 

i 


which  case  the  best  average  is  used.  The  time  is  taken  on  the  best 
operators  in  the  ordinary  course  of  work,  no  special  inducements 
being  offered  or  special  conditions  created  for  the  test.  These  ele- 
ment times  are  totaled  and  checked  with  the  total  time  of  the  opera- 
tion, which  has  been  taken  simultaneously  with  the  taking  of  the 
element  times.  In  no  case  is  the  task  set  higher  than  has  been 
actually  accomplished  under  observation. 

In  addition  to  the  element  times,  certain  allowances  are  made  for 
rethreading  needles,  removing  and  replacing  bobbins,  taking  away 
completed  and  getting  new  work,  personal  necessities,  etc.,  all  of 
which  are  based  on  another  series  of  observations,  made  on  each  one 
of  these  delays  and  extending  over  long  periods  of  time. 

Excluding  the  aUowance  for  unavoidable  and  other  delays,  the 
task  is  based  on  a  56.25-minute  hour;  that  is,  3.75  minutes  are  allowed 
for  various  delays  in  every  working  hour.  For  example,  let  us  assume 
the  total  of  the  element  and  allowance  times  is  two  minutes.  Dividing 
two  minutes  into  the  56.25  minute  hour  we  get  28.125  units  of  this 
operation  to  be  performed  in  one  hour.  The  standard  task  on  which 
the  piece  price  is  set  is,  however,  only  90  per  cent  of  this  28.125  or 
25  units  per  hour  (for  this  operation).  The  standard  piece  price  is 
the  standard  class  rate  divided  by  the  standard  hourly  task.  In  the 
above  case,  if  the  standard  class  rate"  was  40  cents  per  hour,  the 
standard  task  being  25,  the  standard  piece  price  would  oe  $0,016. 

The  piece  price,  once  thus  determined,  is  permanent.  After  a 
worker  nas  established  himself  in  a  class  he  is  Kept  in  that  class  or 
put  in  a  higher  one,  but  is  never  allowed  to  drop  below  his  class.  If 
nis  earnings  are  below  the  minimum  of  the  class  and  the  fault  is  not 
entirely  his,  he  is  paid  the  minimum  rate,  his  pay  being  in  this  case 
on  a  sort  of  day-rate  basis.  If  the  fault  is  entirely  his,  he  must  stand 
his  loss  and  is  paid  just  what  he  earns. 

A  new  hand  is  started  at  a  certain  rate,  depending  upon  personal 
conditions.  There  is  a  minimum  for  certain  beginners,  as  in  the 
case  of  a  married  person,  a  girl  supporting  herself,  or  a  girl  under  18 
years  of  ago.  Each  beginner  or  old  hand  that  is  working  on  a  new 
operation  is  given  an  initial  allowance  or  handicap,  depending  upon 
the  circumstances.  Let  us  assume  that  the  initial  allowance  is  20 
cents  per  hour.  The  first  week  the  worker  would  receive  half  of  the 
initial  allowance,  or  10  cents,  plus  what  was  actually  earned  accord- 
ing to  the  piece  price  rate.  If  this  sum  is  less  than  the  20-cent 
initial  allowance  trie  worker  would  be  paid  that  initial  aUowance  of 
20  cents,  and  the  next  week  the  initial  allowance  would  be  the  same. 
Generally  the  allowance  for  the  second  week  is  only  18  cents  per  hour, 
a  proCTCss  of  2  cents  per  hour  during  the  second  week  being  ex- 
pected. The  progress  during  the  first  week  varies  with  the  operator 
and  the  operation,  but  the  2-cent  weekly  progress,  though  not  defi- 
nitely fixed,  is  the  usual  progress  expected,  until  without  the  aid  of 
the  allowance  the  operator  establishes  herself  in  her  class;  that  is, 
without  the  aid  of  the  allowance  she  earns  more  than  the  minimum 
of  her  class.  The  average  new  hand  establishes  herself  in  a  class  in 
two  months  or  less.  Tne  allowance  is  continued  only  if  the  em- 
ployee puts  forth  a  reasonable  effort.  If  she  is  lazy,  the  allowance  is 
cut  down  or  may  be  discontinued. 

o  See  p.  168. 


\ 


I  ■  y 


I- 


t^> 


Suppose  that  the  factory  is  short  a  seamer  and  that  it  is  necessary 
to  fill  this  place  at  once.  A  hand  who  formerly  did  seaming  but  who 
is  now  on  a  different  operation  will  be  used  to  fill  up  the  vacancy. 
Her  last  earnings  when  seaming  were  26  cents  per  hour;  not  having 
been  doing  this  work  recently,  however,  she  can  not  be  expected  to 
earn,  let  us  say,  more  than  22  cents  per  hour  when  returning  to  seam- 
ing. But  her  earnings  at  the  other  work  are  30  cents  per  hour,  so 
that  in  this  case  the  hand  would  be  given  an  allowance  of  8  cents 
per  hour  plus  the  actual  earnings  at  the  piece-price  rate. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  examining  method  in  vogue  in  this 
factory,  which  is  probably  without  parallel  in  the  clothing  trade. 
Inspectors  or  examiners  are  paid  at  a  rate  estimated  on  the  task  basis 
similar  to  the  regular  operations.  For  a  rejection  of  a  garment  by 
the  examiner  that  is  sustained  by  the  inspecting  foreman,  the  ex- 
aminer is  paid  a  bonus,  varying  from  30  per  cent  to  100  per  cent  of 
the  original  inspecting  price.  A  rejected  garment  is  returned  by  the 
inspecting  foreman  to  the  operator  who  did  the  work  and  who  receives 
a  demerit  mark.  The  inspecting  foreman  not  only  must  have  the 
error  corrected  but  is  expected  to  discover  the  cause  and  to  show  the 
operator  how  to  elimmate  that  cause.  When  the  error  has  been 
corrected  the  examiner  who  reexamines  the  garment  is  paid  for  the 
reexamination  as  if  it  were  a  new  garment.  An  operator  who  sub- 
sequently works  on  goods  that  are  already  imperfect  and  that  would 
affect  his  work  is  given  a  demerit,  just  as  if  he  had  made  the  error 
himself.  But  if,  instead  of  continuing  work  on  a  faulty  garment, 
he  should  return  the  work  to  the  inspecting  foreman  and  be  sus- 
tained, the  examiner  who  passed  the  work  must  repair  it  on  his  own 
time,  if  possible,  and,  if  not,  he  loses  his  price  of  examming  plus  one 
bonus.  The  operator  who  returned  the  work  receives  a  credit  mark. 
These  demerit  and  credit  marks  are  carefully  considered  when  the 
question  of  promotion,  etc.,  comes  up. 

the  service  department. 

Recognition  that  the  human  element  is  a  big  factor  in  manufac- 
turing, that  without  proper  regard  for  the  interests  of  the  workers 
the  best  results  can  not  be  attained  even  in  the  factory  with  the 
fmest  mechanical  eouipment,  has  led  to  the  establishment  of  welfare 
work.  Unfortunately  some  manufacturers  who  spend  money  for  this 
work  regard  such  expenditures  as  philanthropy  and  the  worker  in 
such  a  plant  is  taught  that  he  is  receiving  something  for  nothing. 
The  factory  described,  however,  regards  welfare  work  as  a  cost  of  run- 
ning its  business,  and  recognizes  that  cost  of  production  depends 
raore  upon  the  ability  or  inability  of  the  worker  than  upon  any  other 
single  factor.  It  is  spending  this  money  with  the  certainty  that  it  will 
receive  an  ample  return  in  the  form  of  more  skilled,  healthier,  happier, 
and  more  efficient  workers,  with  a  resulting  greater  production  and 
finer  product.  'Since  the  term  welfare  work  is  m  a  sense  repugnant 
both  to  the  management  and  to  the  employees,  the  work  in  the 
factory  under  consideration  is  called  service. 

The  service  work  is  not  performed  in  a  haphazard  manner,  or  from 
time  to  time  as  the  fancy  of  the  owner  may  dictate,  but  is  an  im- 
portant regular  part  of  the  factory  organization  under  the  charge  of 
a  special  service  department.    At  the  head  of  this  department  is  a 


172 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


specially  trained  woman,  known  as  the  service  superintendent,  who 
has  responsibilities  second  only  to  those  of  the  general  manager. 
Employment,  discipline,  dismissal,  training,  health,  all  are  under  the 
immediate  direction  of  this  department. 

Employment. — When  a  new  hand  is  to  be  taken  on,  the  applicant 
reports  to  the  service  department  for  a  personal  interview.  Ques- 
tions are  asked  to  ascertain  the  applicant's  attitude  toward  work 
and  the  general  fitness  of  the  applicant  for  the  organization.  The 
requirements  and  conditions  of  engagement  are  explained  in  detail — 
the  debilitating  effect  of  doing  outside  work,  regularity  in  attendance, 
and  submittal  to  medical,  dental,  and  ocular  examinations,  etc.  It 
will  be  seen  that  this  factory  is  very  careful  in  the  selection  of  its 
help,  its  belief  being  that  with  the  proper  raw  material  highly  efficient 
workers  can  be  produced  under  proper  guidance  and  mstruction.  A 
card  in  the  following  form,  which  is  kept  as  a  permanent  record, 
must  be  filled  out  for  every  apphcant: 


APPUCATION  RECORD  OF  SMITH,  MART. 


Applied  5/11/14.    Address, 


.    For  machine  work.    Birth  date,  Aug.  14,  1898.    Birthplace. 

Pittsburgh.    Suita1)ility,  pood.    Immierated, .    Parentage,  CJerman.    Married, .    Family,  2 

sisters  (12,  4),  1  brother  (20),  father,  and  mother.    Wage  contrib.,  ail. 
References  (in  om-  employ),  Mary  Jones,  cousin. 


Previous  employment. 

Time. 

Capacity. 

Wage. 

Why  ended. 

.'ohn  Brown  &  Co 

lyr 

ClerJt 

7.00 

Small  wages. 

Checked, 


Class,  W.  P.  W.    No.,  142.    Rate,  P.  W.    Operation,  coats  seamed. 


Employed  7-23-14,  by 
Locker,  ?2.S.    Fore, 

Approved^ .    Signature. 

Qualifications:  A  3;  M  3;  2  plus  G  3.    Languages,  English  and  German.    Education,  Seventh  grade, 
Jones  School. 

Notes.— Fathw  a  teamster,  working  in  American  brick  yard;  brother  doing  clerical  work.    Mary  a  very 
good  type  of  American  girl,    lias  done  sowing  at  home.    Anxious  to  work  here  because  her  friends  are  here. 

This  factory  maintains  an  emergency  hospital  and  a  well-equipped 
consultation  room,  with  an  examination  table,  a  dental  chair  and. 
cabinet,  eye  charts  and  lenses,  and  a  nurse's  desk  and  couch.  A 
nurse  is  in  constant  attendance  and  keeps  the  medical  record  of  each 
employee.  All  new  employees  must  oe  examined  by  the  nurse. 
No  worker  is  permitted  to  go  home  during  working  hours  without 
the  consent  of  the  nurse,  except  as  has  been  explained.  All  absent- 
ees who  have  been  ill  must  report  to  the  nurse  before  returning  to 
work. 

A  physician  visits  the  factory  three  times  a  week.  Where  the  ills 
are  slight,  he  treats  them  at  tne  factory.  If  they  are  more  serious, 
he  treats  them  at  his  office  or  at  the  employee's  homo  at  special  rates. 
A  dentist  is  in  attendance  at  the  factory  once  a  week.  He  gives  pro- 
phylactic treatment  and  makes  examinations,  but  does  no  repair 
work.  He  advises  and  recommends.  He  does  repair  work  at  his 
office  at  special  rates,  or,  if  an  employee  wishes  to  go  to  his  own  den- 
tist, estimates  the  price  that  he  should  pay.  Twice  a  week  an  oculist 
calls  at  the  factory.  Every  new  employee  must  undergo  an  eye 
examination.  The  oculist  examines  and  advises,  and,  like  the  den- 
tist, if  employees  wish  to  go  to  their  own  oculist,  estimates  the 
price  to  be  paid.  The  factory  oculist  has  an  arrangement  with  an 
optical  company  whereby  glasses,  when  necessary,  may  bo  procured 
at  a  discount  of  50  per  cent. 


r-*;^ 


k 


J. 


-4- 


MANUFACTURING   CONDITIONS. 


173 


The  factory  endeavors  to  have  each  employee  examined  by  the 
physician,  dentist,  and  oculist  at  least  once  in  six  months,  or  more 
often  when  necessary.  Each  employee  who  needs  attention  must 
receive  it,  and  it  is  a  compliment  to  the  spirit  of  the  workers  that  in 
no  case  where  such  treatment  was  necessary  have  they  been  unwillmg 
to  undergo  it. 

Dining  rooms. — There  are  separate  dining  rooms  for  men  and 
women.  Each  emplojee  is  assigned  a  chair,  which  becomes  his  per- 
manent place.  Care  is  taken  to  place  the  employee  near  his  friends, 
or  where  he  will  possibly  get  the  most  good  out  of  his  neighbors. 
Each  table  is  presided  over  by  a  mature  man  or  woman,  backed 
lunches,  consisting  of  crackers,  two  sandwiches,  a  relish,  fruit  and 
cake,  are  served  at  10  cents  for  those  who  do  not  wish  to  bring  their 
lunch.  To  satisfy  the  tastes  of  the  various  nationalities  employed,  the 
factory  purchases  the  food  and  packs  the  lunches.  Hot  soup  is 
served  at  2  cents  a  bowl,  coffee  at  2  cents,  and  tea  at  1  cent  a  cup, 
milk  at  2  cents,  buttermilk  or  lemonade  at  1  cent  a  glass,  and  ice 
cream  at  3  cents  a  plate.  The  general  manager,  service  superin- 
tendent, and  heads  of  the  various  departments  all  partake  of  the 
same  lunch.  The  Bureau's  agent,  who  had  the  pleasure  of  sitting  at 
one  of  these  lunch  gatherings,  found  the  food  simple  but  wholesome 
and  substantial.  The  factory  last  year  expended  upon  this  depart- 
ment more  than  total  the  receipts. 

BanJc  and  loans.-^The  factory  conducts  a  penny  bank.  An  earnest 
effort  is  made  to  interest  all  the  employees  in  saving.  Deposits  of 
1  cent  will  be  accepted,  though  the  employees  never  deposit  less  than 
5  cents.  To  stimulate  the  interest  in  saving  the  factory  pays  6  per 
cent  interest.  When  an  employee  has  saved  $100,  the  money  must 
be  withdrawn  and  deposited  with  a  city  savings  institution.  At  the 
time  of  the  agent's  visit,  50  per  cent  of  the  employees  had  bank 
accounts. 

The  factory  has  found  that  habitual  savuig  increases  production; 
in  some  cases  the  earning  capacity  has  increased  fully  50  per  cent  as 
a  direct  result.  The  factory  has  found  that  when  employees  turn 
over  all  their  pay  to  the  family  treasury  there  is  no  mcentive  for 
working  harder.  The  service  department  in  such  cases  endeavors 
.to  make  arrangements  whereby  the  employee  is  allowed  to  keep  a 
part  of  his  pay  for  saving.  In  such  cases  the  employees  consider 
what  they  deposit  as  a  bonus  and  work  hard  to  increase  it. 

In  connection  with  the  bank  the  factory  has  a  loan  department, 
from  which,  in  cases  of  special  necessity  or  emergency,  employees 
may  borrow  money  up  to  a  limited  amount,  without  interest.  The 
loans  are  usually  small,  but  occasionally  have  been  as  high  as  several 
hundred  dollars.  The  amount  of  the  loan  is  deducted  from  the 
employee's  pay  in  amounts  proportionate  to  the  earnings.  The  firm 
has  never  lost  money  on  these  loans. 

Library. — The  factory  has  an  arrangement  whereby  the  city 
library  has  estabhshed  a  branch  in  the  factory.  Once  a  week  a 
delivery  of  books  is  made  and  books  no  longer  desired  are  returned. 
An  effort  is  made  to  encourage  systematic  reading.  Employees  may 
take  these  books  home.  A  factory  library  also  is  being  built  up, 
consisting  of  standard  works  on  efficiency,  business  methods,  etc., 
and  these  are  frequently  borrowed  by  the  foremen  and  instructors. 


♦-  i~*^ 


\ 


174 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


Several  business  and  efficiency  magazines  are  also  on  file,  the  items 
of  interest  to  supervisors  being  marked. 

English  class.— By  arrangement  with  the  board  of  education  of  the 
city,  a  class  m  English  for  foreigners  is  held  at  the  factory  on  Tuesdays 
and  Thursdays,  from  4.30  to  5.30  p.  m.  All  foreign-born  employees 
must  attend  these  classes  until  they  can  speak  and  understand 
English.  The  board  of  education  supplies  the  textbooks  and  a 
pubhc-school  teacher.  The  foreigner  at  work  or  in  the  dining  room  is 
placed  between  English-speaking  employees,  which  assists  hun  to 
learn  the  language  rapidly.  At  first  the  factory  urged  the  learning 
of  English,  but  only  a  few  attended;  those  who  had  been  in  this 
country  the  longest  and  knew  the  least  EngUsh  and  the  dullest  were 
the  ones  who  would  not  attend.  Compulsory  attendance  was  then 
resorted  to,  but  at  wesent  all  the  students  who  attend  the  classes 
do  so  voluntarily.  When  a  man  is  ready  for  citizenship  he  is  assisted 
in  being  naturalized. 

The  learning  of  EngUsh  makes  for  greater  efficiency.  Ability  to 
speak  foreign  languages  is  no  longer  the  chief  asset  of  tiie  foreman  or 
superintendent,  regardless  of  how  poor  his  other  quahfications  might 
be.    Ability  to  speak  Enghsh  does  away  with  the  need  of  inter- 

greters  and  permits  the  heads  of  departments  to  speak  directly  to  the 
elp.  It  makes  for  greater  teamwork  among  tne  employees.  At 
first  it  was  noticed  that  when  a  foreigner  sat  among  American  or 
English-speaking  employees  there  was  a  lack  of  unity,  the  non- 
English  speaking  employee  being  regarded  as  an  inferior,  but  that 
as  soon  as  this  employee  learned  to  speak  English  the  others  regarded 
him  as  one  of  themselves,  and  all  then  worked  together  with  greater 
efficiency.  When  one  considers  that  in  the  clothing  trade  almost  the 
entire  working  force  is  composed  of  foreigners  the  great  importance 
of  teaching  English  will  be  realized. 

Playground  and  game  rooms.— ^o  employee  is  permitted  to  remain 
in  the  workroom  during  lunch  time.  Separate  playgrounds  are 
provided  for  men  and  women.  The  girls  play  baseball,  volley  ball, 
etc.,  and  those  who  do  not  play  sit  on  shaded  seats.  The  men  usually 
play  baseball  and  quoits,  the  manager  and  superintendents  playing 
with  the  men.  Occasionally  the  girls'  team  plays  against  the  men's 
team,  and  a  healthy  rivalry  is  the  rule.  For  those  that  are  not  active 
there  are  separate  game  rooms  for  men  and  women  and  a  smoking 
room  for  the  men  in  which  boys  are  not  allowed.  Current  magazines 
are  provided  in  these  rooms. 

Dancing.— The  factory  pays  a  dancing  instructor  who  once  a  week, 
from  4.30  to  5.30  p.  m.,  instructs  the  employees  in  modem  dancing. 
Dancing  is  resorted  to  on  days  when  the  weather  does  not  permit 
outdoor  activity.  There  is  a  piano  in  the  building.  Every  Wednes- 
day at  noon  a  dance  is  held  for  which  the  shop  orchestra  furnishes  the 
music.  Occasionally  the  girls  when  going  out  to  dance  in  the  evening 
invite  the  heads  of  tne  service  department  to  accompany  them. 

Choral  society.— On  Fridays,  from  4.30  to  5.30  p.  m.,  a  choral 
club  is  conducted  by  a  well-known  musical  director,  and  annually 
in  May  a  concert  is  given,  which  arouses  great  interest.  The  average 
attendance  at  the  weekly  choral  meeting  is  about  150.  The  mem- 
bers pay  5  cents  per  meeting.  A  visit  to  the  workrooms  will  find 
many  of  the  employees  smging  at  their  work.  This  factory  believes 
that  the  happy  worker  is  the  productive  worker. 


MANUFACTURING  CONDITIONS. 


175 


^Hil* 


-h 


Parties. — At  intervals  parties  are  given  by  one  or  more  sections. 
The  arrangements  are  made  by  three  committees  of  the  employees, 
the  comnaittees  being  large  enough  to  give  most  of  the  employees  an 
opportunity  to  serve,  thus  encouraging  democracy  and  good  feeUng. 
Refreshments  not  to  cost  more  than  15  cents  are  served.  Friends 
and  relatives  of  the  employees  are  invited  and  entertainment  is 
furnished  by  local  talent  in  the  form  of  music,  recitations,  various 
national  dances,  etc.  The  manager,  superintendents,  and  fore- 
men, with  their  wives,  mingle  freely  with  the  employees  at  these 
gatherings,  and  Americans  mix  freely  with  foreigners.  Friendliness 
and  good  will  are  fostered  and  increased.  The  parties  commence 
after  supper,  which  may  be  had,  if  desired,  in  the  factory,  and  last 
until  9  p.  m. 

Personal  relaiions. — As  often  as  necessary,  for  example,  when  the 
earnings  are  decreasing,  the  employee  is  called  to  the  service-depart- 
ment office  and  interviewed.  Here  frank  discussions  as  to  the  per- 
sonal affairs  of  the  employee  are  indulged  in,  and  causes  making  the 
employee  inefficient  are  sought  for.  The  department  counsels  on  all 
affairs,  even  the  most  intimate.  It  may  decide  that  a  change  in 
operation  is  necessary.  If  this  interview  does  not  accomplish 
results,  the  home  of  the  employee  is  visited.  Sometimes  it  is  found 
necessary  to  advise  mothers  of  the  injurious  effects  of  girls  sleeping 
with  several  others  in  one  small  room,  leaving  home  without  break- 
fast, or  doing  a  heavy  washing  before  coming  to  work.  Often  the 
pay  roll  of  other  girls  who  are  earning  more  money  is  exhibited. 
As  a  rule  these  home  visits  bring  results.  Another  feature  of  this 
personal  relationship  is  visiting  day.  On  the  first  Friday  afternoon 
of  each  month  the  parents  and  families  of  the  employ ces*^  are  invited 
to  the  factory,  and  a  sympathetic  cooperation  between  the  service 
department  and  the  home  is  established. 

Recognizing  that  employees,  while  they  may  do  things  efficiently 
m  their  own  personal  affairs,  are  not  executives,  all  the  foregoing 
activities  are  carried  on,  not  by  the  employees,  but  by,a  capable  se'rvice 
department,  to  the  activities  of  which  34.11  per  cent  of  the  total 
factory  floor  space  is  devoted.  The  factory  comtemplates  installintr 
m  the  near  future  a  pension  and  a  life-insurance  system.  '^ 

Discussion  of  welfare  worJc.— The  present  standard  has  not  been 
achieved  without  a  great  expenditure  of  money,  time,  and  energy. 
The  employees  originally  were  opposed  to  these  ''new-fangled  ideas."* 
The  greatest  fight  the  factory  had  was  making  the  employees  feel 
that  these  innovations  were  the  steps  to  personal  advancement 
showing  them  the  spirit  of  the  undertaking,  making  them  realize  the 
benefits  of  cooperation,  unity,  and  teamwork.  It  was  a  long,  hard 
struggle,  but  it  was  eventually  won.  All  these  activities  of  the 
service  department  are  instruments  to  raise  the  standard  of  the  indi- 
vidual and  make  more  efficient  workers.  Every  dollar  expended  is 
considered  an  investment,  which  nets  good  returns  in  a  more  stable 
and  efficient  working  force.  The  human  factor  is  raised  as  is  the 
mechanical  factor.  While  good  pay  and  working  conditions  are 
essential,  they  are  not  sufficient.  Every  factor  that  reacts  on  the 
mental  and  physical  well-being  of  the  worker  is  essential,  too. 

The  practical  business  man  will  ask.  Do  these  extensive  activities 
previously  described,  pay?    Some  manufacturers  claim  that  while 


176 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


they  can  see  tho  benefits  to  be  derived  from  such  activities,  the 
expense  involved  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  tho  return.  The  factory 
described  runs  its  entire  service  aepartment  with  a  very  few  intelli- 
gent, capable,  and  conscientious  workers,  and  though  the  expendi- 
ture in  mone^  is  comparatively  high,  this  factory,  at  any  rate,  con- 
siders that  it  is  a  good  investment  and  that  the  returns  to  date  fully 
justify  it  in  continuing  its  elaborate  service  program. 

MODEL  CLOTHINQ-FACTOBT  BUILDINGS. 

Many  of  the  factories  in  w^hich  clothing  is  made  consist  only  of 
lofts  in  tall  buildings,  which  have  no  special  adaptability  for  any  line 
of  manufacturing.  Many  of  the  larger  lofts  have  insufficient  day- 
light, unless  they  are  the  top  lofts  and  have  skylights. 

IMPROVEMENTS   IN   FACTORY   CONSTRUCTION. 

During  the  last  decade,  and  especially  in  the  last  five  years,  a 
number  of  admirably  constructed  clothing  factories  have  been 
erected.  There  is  perhaps  no  industry  in  the  United  States  that  has 
factories  better  designed  and  equipped  than  some  of  the  modern 
clothing  factories.  Most  of  these  newer  factories  have  been  planned 
after  a  careful  study  of  all  the  features  that  have  proved  of  benefit 
to  the  employees.  Some  are  built  in  the  suburbs,  where  land  is 
cheaper  than  in  the  business  sections  of  the  cities.  In  the  suburbs, 
greater  space,  more  light,  and  much  better  ventUation  can  be  obtained. 
Some  of  these  factories  in  the  suburbs  are  surrounded  by  trees  and 
well-kept  lawns,  and  the  buildings  are  attractively  designed,  so  that 
they  look  little  like  ordinary  factories. 

The  progressive  companies  that  have  built  these  newer  factories 
desigiied  especiallv  for  the  manufacture  of  clothing  have  become 
convinced  that  efficiency  is  promoted  by  comfortable  and  pleasant 
factory  conditions.  Accordingly,  in  constructing  their  new  buildings, 
they  have  incorporated  many  improvements  that  make  the  sur- 
roundings of  the  workers  far  more  agreeable  than  they  were  formerly. 
During  this  investigation  it  was  found  that  the  establishments  that 
had  erected  these  well-designed  and  well-equipped  factory  buildings 
are  among  those  who  do  the  largest  amount  of  business  and  make  the 
largest  percentages  of  profit. 

Following  are  brief  descriptions  of  two  modern  clothing  factories 
inspected  by  agents  of  the  Bureau, 

PACTORY  A. 

The  well-being  of  the  workers  was  given  paramount  consideration 
in  planning  the  buildings  of  Factory  A.  Tho  firm  behoves  that  better 
clothes  can  be  made  if  employees  are  contented  and  happy.  Conse- 
quently, this  clothing  concern  has  spared  no  expense  to  safeguard 
tne  health  and  happiness  of  the  men  and  women  workers  in  the  con- 
struction of  its  new  shops.  It  was  not  done  to  be  philanthropic, 
but  as  a  matter  of  sound  business. 

Architecture. — Domestic  residential  style  characterizes  the  exterior 
architecture,  and  the  effect  is  decidedly  pleasing.  Doorways  are 
inviting,  and  above  them  are  placed  wrought-iron  balconies,  filled 


a 


n 


MANUFACTURING   CONDITIONS. 


177 


with  plants.  An  unusual  feature  is  that  the  building  covers  less 
than  one-half  the  site,  and  the  rest  of  the  property  provides  ample 
space  for  dayhght  to  enter  every  part  of  the  building. 

Li^^^— Sunshine  will  travel  25  feet  from  a  window  into  a  room- 
based  on  this  computation  of  the  architect,  the  building  is  only  50  feet 
wide,  making  the  center  of  every  room  25  feet  from  a  window.  The 
building  extends  for  250  feet  across  the  site,  and  another  wing  runs 
back  from  the  center  at  right  angles,  giving  the  building  the  shape  of 
a  T.  On  both  sides  of  the  base  or  pillar  of  the  T  are  lawns  and  foU- 
Effe.  Inside  the  building,  large  windows  fill  every  waU,  and  the  doors 
of  the  four  fire  escapes  on  each  floor  are  of  glass.  Even  on  gloomy 
days  there  is  no  need  of  artificial  fight,  as  the  walls  are  lined  with 
glazed  white  tile,  and  fight  is  reflected  everywhere.  Only  on  the 
darkest  days  and  during  the  hours  of  late  winter  twifight  is  it  neces- 
sary to  use  artificial  fi^ht. 

The  system  of  artificial  fighting  is  of  the  most  modern  electrical 
type.  Special  fixtures  have  been  designed  to  prevent  the  eyestrain 
common  among  clothing  makers. 

Ventilation, — ^A  modern  ventilating  system  assures  each  employee 
of  an  abundance  of  fresh  air.  At  both  ends  of  each  floor  are  placed 
two  large  ventilator  shafts,  which  run  upward  to  the  roof,  where 
they  are  capped  with  large  hoods.  These  hoods  are  set  on  ball 
bearings  and  respond,  fike  weather  vanes,  to  the  sfightest  breeze. 
The  openings  of  each  shaft  are  therefore  facing  the  direction  opposite 
to  that  from  which  the  wind  comes,  the  exhausted  air  rising  and 
escapii^  unimpeded.  A  ventilator  is  placed  at  each  window  also, 
just  below  the  sill,  through  which  passes  a  supply  of  fresh  air,  which 
IS  warmed  to  a  suitable  temperature  on  entering  the  building.  The 
air  in  the  shops  is  renewed  completely  every  10  minutes,  and  is  thus 
always  fresh. 

Cleanliness.— The  walls  are  of  glazed  white  tile,  impervious  to  dirt 
and  dampness,  and  are  easily  kept  clean.  The  sweeping  is  done  by  a 
powerful  vacuum  cleaner.  Sweepings  and  rubbish  find  their  way  to 
a  garbage  boiler,  to  be  converted  from  waste  products  into  fuel  to 
produce  the  plant's  hot-water  supply.  An  additional  help  to  keeping 
the  workrooms  neat  is  the  system  of  steel  chutes  running  to  each 
floor,  through  which  cloth  cuttings  and  waste  drop  into  fireproof 
boxes  placed  on  the  first  floor. 

Drinking  water.— Thave  is  fittle  chance  for  germs  to  exist  in  the 
drinking  water,  which  circulates  throughout  the  factory  through 
bubble  fountains.  The  water  goes  first  through  a  filter,  where  aU 
impurities  are  removed.  From  the  filter  it  passes  through  a  sterilizer 
quipped  with  a  generator  that  sends  5,000  volts  of  electricity 
through  every  drop. 

Commissary. — The  shops  are  equipped  with  a  modern  commissary 
department.  Food  is  chosen  and  cooked  scientifically,  under  the 
direction  of  an  expert,  in  the  great  kitchen,  which  is  fitted  with 
every  modern  apphance.  The  food  is  nourishing  and  makes  for 
health  and  efficiency.  It  is  sold  at  cost,  and  those  who  desire  may 
also  take  home  cooked  food  or  provisions  at  actual  wholesale  cost. 

Recreation  and  dining  rooms. — An  attractive  recreation  room  is 
located  just  off  the  large  dining  room.  It  is  80  feet  long  by  42  feet 
XX914<>— 16 n 


V 


178 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


?^* 


MANUFACTURING  CONDITIONS. 


179 


wide,  and  its  windows  are  fitted  with  lace  curtains;  large  rugs  are 
spread  on  the  floor.  This  room  contains  library  tables,  fitted  with 
reading  lamps,  and  provided  with  magazines  in  many  languages — 
Pohsh,  Bohemian,  German,  Scandinavian,  and  Italian — ^for  the  em- 
ployees. These  rooms  are  social  centers  for  the  workers  and  their 
families,  and  are  used  during  free  hours  and  in  the  evenings. 

On  special  occasions  the  collapsible  dining-room  tables  may  be 
removed,  allowing  abundant  room  for  community  entertainments 
and  dancing. 

Hospital. — A  cheerful,  sunny  room  is  the  factory's  hospital.  A 
trainea  nm^e  is  always  on  duty,  ready  to  care  for  the  sick  or  indis- 
posed, and  a  physician  is  witnin  easy  call.  All  cases  of  illness  or 
accident  receive  immediate  attention. 

Welfare. — ^A  welfare  department  has  been  established  with  a 
separate  corps  of  workers  for  the  men  and  women.  Their  business 
is  to  look  after  the  welfare  of  every  employee,  but  their  work  is  not 
limited  to  the  four  walls  of  the  factory.  They  go  into  the  homes  of 
the  workers  as  well,  in  cases  of  death,  sickness,  or  trouble. 


FACTORY  B. 


Factory  B  is  located  at  a  coiusiderable  distance  from  the  manufac- 
tiu*ing  section  of  the  city.  It  has  no  high  buildings  on  any  side  to 
exclude  air  and  fight.  The  factory  building  is  about  100  feet  from  the 
street  and  is  surrounded  by  neat,  well-kept  lawns,  inclosed  by  a  hand- 
some iron  fence. 

The  building,  which  is  erected  around  a  court  so  as  to  insure 
abundance  of  light,  is  of  steel  and  concrete  construction,  and  is  as 
nearly  fireproof  as  possible.  On  the  first  floor  are  locker  and  recrea- 
tion rooms,  the  hospital,  restaurant,  and  kitchen,  the  power  and 
heating  plant,  the  shipping  and  freight  room,  and  a  storage  room  for 
waste  material.  The  room  for  the  storage  of  waste  was  designed 
to  be  absolutely  fireproof,  because  most  fires  in  clothing  factories 
originate  in  the  waste  room. 

The  plant  has  its  own  machine  shop,  in  charge  of  skilled  machinists. 
The  company  claims  that  it  could  almost  build  its  own  machines 
and  that  all  machinery  is  kept  in  perfect  condition  so  as  to  insure  the 
highest  production. 

The  lighting  in  this  factory  is  one  of  its  finest  features.  Largo 
windows  extend  from  floor  to  coiling,  artificial  light  is  furnished  by 
large  electric  lamps,  with  reflectors,  and  each  machine  has  an  indi- 
vidual adjustable  light. 

The  air  is  filtered  through  water,  and  is  absolutely  pure  when  it 
comes  into  the  workrooms.  In  summer  the  air  is  cooled  as  it  comes 
into  the  buUdins:  and  in  winter  it  is  warmed. 

There  are  separate  locker  rooms  for  men  and  women.  These  rooms 
are  large  and  contain  rows  of  steel  lockers,  with  ample  space  between, 
running  from  one  end  to  the  other.  Each  employee  has  a  key  to  a 
private  locker. 

The  large  limch  room  is  neatly  furnished  and  is  provided  with  a 
piano.  An  inspection  of  the  kitcnen  showed  that  everything  possible 
was  done  to  keep  it  clean.  A  satisfying  lunch  is  served  at  the  nominal 
charge  of  15  cents.  During  the  noon  hour  the  doors  to  the  work- 
rooms we  locked,  so  that  employees  are  forced  to  take  the  necessary 


1 


^ 


:f 


time  to  eat  and  rest.  Before  this  rule  was  made,  pieceworkers  would 
take  off  only  about  10  miivutes,  and  would  work  the  rest  of  the  noon 
hour. 

The  factory  hospital  room  is  a  picture  of  neatness.  A  trained 
nurse  is  always  on  duty  during  working  hours.  - 

In  the  rear  of  the  building  are  a  baseball  field  and  tennis  and 
croquet  grounds  for  employees. 

INEFFICIENT  METHODS  OF  MANUFACTUEING. 

Efficiency  has  been  defined  as  "the  accomplishment  of  a  task  as 
well  done  as  it  is  humanly  possible  to  do  it,  with  the  least  expendi- 
ture of  time,  effort,  and  money."  " 

In  the  clothing  industry  makeshift  methods  are  stUl  used  to  a 

great  extent.  Many  manufacturers  who  in  the  past  have  been 
ighly  successful  continue  their  old  methods,  firmly  convinced  that 
a  change  in  policy  would  result  in  disaster.  Such  manufacturers 
may  not  be  aware  of  the  fact  that  their  former  success  was  not  due 
to  the  use  of  now  obsolete  methods,  but  came  about  because  many 
of  their  competitors-  were  equally  inefficient.  This  inefficiency  of 
the  trade  in  general  was  the  reason  why  many  of  those  who  entered 
the  business  were  successful. 

The  methods  that  were  formerly  successful  in  a  small  factory 
prove  disastrous  in  many  cases  when  applied  to  the  larger  factories 
of  to-day.  In  many  cases  factories  ar^  now  too  large  to  be  success- 
fully managed  by  one  individual.  In  the  old  da,ys  the  owner  was  a 
tailor  as  well  as  a  manufacturer.  He  knew  his  business,  worked 
among  his  people,  directed  them  with  his  superior  knowledge,  and 
maintained  intimate  relations  with  them;  but  the  spirit  of  team 
work  and  cooperation  were  lost  as  the  shop  grew  in  size  and  the 
owner  delegated  to  his  superintendents  and  foremen  the  manage- 
ment of  the  labor  force. 

A  new  generation  came  into  the  business,  in  many  cases  the  college- 
bred  sons  of  old  successful  manufacturers.  These  young  men  were 
not  tailors.  They  knew  nothing  about  the  manufacture  of  clothing. 
Their  ideas,  when  they  were  at  all  fitted  for  business,  were  those  of 
men  of  commerce.  Tne  factory  could  take  care  of  itself.  The  fore- 
men could  run  that.  The  all-important  thing  was  the  administra- 
tive end  of  the  business,  directing  the  salesmen,  extending  credit, 
etc.  The  result  is  what  might  have  been  expected.  The  commercial 
end  of  the  clothing  business  to-day  is  usually  competently  handled, 
but  generally  speaking,  the  manufacturing  side  lacks  efficiency. 

The  chief  difficulty  is  to  convince  inefficient  manufacturers  that 
the  old  methods  are  out  of  date.  The  fact  that  a  plant  is  large,  the 
building  modern,  and  the  equipment  the  best  that  money  can  buy, 
and  that  high-salaried  managers  are  employed,  does  not  necessarily 
show  that  a  factory  is  successfully  conducted.  The  existence  of  the 
small  contractor,  who  gets  the  most  out  of  his  humble  facilities, 
who  knows  his  job,  and  who  successfully  competes  with  the  big 
inside  shop,  indicates  that  mere  size  and  equipment  mean  nothing. 
Efficiency  requires  experimentation  and  study,  going  into  all  meth- 
ods thoroughly  and  exhaustively,  with  the  resulting  standardization 
of  the  best  possible  method. 

9  Pf^vid  K^rschlmum, 


\ 


I 


2£ 


180 


' 


' 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


IMPROPERLY   LAID  OUT  PLANTS, 


/*-  ^ 


As  the  small  clothing  firm  expanded,  the  plant  was  usually  enlarged 
without  any  definite  plan.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  of  the  largest 
houses,  which  built  modem  factories  with  their  product  in  nund, 
most  of  the  houses  added  space  and  equipment,  without  regard  to 
changes  in  the  character  of  the  product  or  business.  Consequently, 
many  large  plants  to-day  are  constructed  so  as  to  make  efficient 
management  impossible. 

A  plant  that  is  not  properly  laid  out  or  that  contains  antiquated 
machinery  increases  the  overhead  cost  and  does  not  permit  the  capa- 
ble worker  to  earn  the  pay  to  which  he  is  entitled.  The  great  majority 
of  clothmg  plants  are  not  laid  out  so  as  to  insure  the  production  of  a 
unit  in  the  least  possible  time.  Most  of  the  firms  that  have  built 
their  own  plants  nave  well-planned  factories,  but  others  are  lacking 


plants  are  rented. 

The  fitting  of  the  factory  to  an  inadequate  building  is  especially 
unfortunate  when  the  factory  is  located  in  a  section  of  the  city  where 
rents  are  high.  In  the  larger  cities  show  rooms  are  necessary  and 
they  must  be  located  where  rents  are  high,  but  the  cost  of  manufac- 
ture is  greatly  increased  by  having  the  factories  in  such  sections. 
If  the  factories  are  separate  from  the  showrooms  and  are  located 
where  the  workers  live,  lower  rents  and  buildings  better  adapted  for 
manufacturing  can  be  obtained. 

The  factories  located  in  downtown  districts  usually  have  very  poor 
fighting  conditions.  In  many  factories  the  artificial  lighting  is  inad- 
equate. All  kinds  of  lights,  from  the  large,  glowing  arc  light  to  the 
incandescent  light,  are  to  be  found.  InverSjd  lights,  or  lights  ar- 
ranged so  as  not  to  cast  shadows,  are  rare.  In  many  factories  the 
walls  are  not  painted  in  colors  that  give  the  best  lighting  effects. 
In  many  factories  the  chairs,  tables,  and  workboxes  are  not  of  the 
proper  size  or  height  to  relieve  fatigue ;  fittle  if  any  attention  is  paid 
to  the  elimination  of  unnecessary  noises,  to  the  proper  heating  of 
irons  for  pressing  various  kinds  of  clothing,  and  tne  proper  kind  of 
shears  to  use  for  various  operations.  By  many  manufacturers  these 
things  are  regarded  as  fads. 

HANDWORK   AND   MACHINE   WORK. 

The  wonderful  development  of  the  clothing  industry  in  the  past 
was  due  chiefly  to  the  introduction  of  time  and  labor  saving  machines 
and  devices.  In  the  future  any  progress  that  the  industry  makes 
will  be  due  to  efficiency  of  management  as  well  as  to  the  more  general 
use  of  improved  machinery.  Custom  tailors  in  the  past  have  employed 
mostly  handwork.  Their  limited  business  and  small  establishments 
did  not  permit  the  installation  of  machinery  other  than  a  few  sewing 
machines.  Since  the  best  clothing  was  formerly  made  by  custom 
tailors,  the  opinion  prevailed  that  good  clothes  had  to  be  handmade. 
Many  manufacturers  have,  therefore,  been  slow  in  investigating  new 
labor-saving  machines.    In  many  cases  the  machine  does  ^veu  better 


r» 


MANUFACTURING   CONDITIONS. 


181 


^ 


-    -^ 


L. 


,M 


work  than  that  performed  by  hand.  A  few  of  the  larger  houses, 
recognizing  the  cost-saving  advantages  of  replacing  handwork  by 
machine  work,  have  substituted  basting  and  felling  machines  for  the 
hand  operations. 

The  substitution  of  machinery  for  handwork  not  only  insures  a 
uniform  product  but  also  permits  a  greater  subdivision  of  labor.  A 
great  subdivision  of  handwork  is  not  practical  or  profitable.  With 
a  greater  subdivision  of  labor,  operations  can  be  made  so  minute 
that  the  employment  of  inexperienced  help  is  profitable ;  and  if  such 
help  can  not  be  utilized,  it  is  often  necessary  for  the  factory  to  remain 
in  an  otherwise  unfavorable  locality  because  of  the  presence  there  of 
skilled  tailors. 

Efficiency  in  the  clothing  industry  is  possible  only  where  the 
manufacturer  uses  every  machine  that  has  proved  capable  of  doing 
as  good  work  as  that  performed  by  hand.  The  greatest  efficiency 
willcome  about  when  machinery  will  have  entirely  superseded  hand- 
work. 

Many  manufacturers  do  not  buy  new  machinery  constantly  coming 
on  the  market,  though  in  a  year  the  saving  from  the  use  of  such 
machines  would  offset  the  initial  cost.  They  continue  to  use  old- 
type  machines,  which,  while  doing  the  work  required,  are  not  adapted 
to  rapid  production.  Some  manufacturers  know  practically  nothing 
about  machines,  and  when  purchasing  new  machines  leave  the  choice 
to  the  foremen.  In  the  annual  inventories  of  some  manufacturers 
no  account  is  taken  of  depreciation  of  machinery. 

Of  the  27  establishments  from  which  reports  regarding  their  sewing 
machines  were  obtained,  only  13  stated  that  they  had  bought  100 
per  cent  of  the  machines  within  10  years,  the  general  average  of  the 
machines  bought  within  10  years  being  58.36  per  cent.  Table  39 
shows  the  percentage  of  machines  bought  within  the  last  10  years  in 
the  27  estabhshments  that  reported  on  this  subject: 

Table  39.— Peecentaqe  op  Sewing  Machines  Bought  Within  10  Years. 


Number  of  establishments 
nporting. 

Machines 
used  when 
establish- 
ments were 
in  full  op- 
eration. 

Parent- 
age pur- 
chased 
within 
last  10 
years. 

Number  of  establishments 
repwting. 

Machines 
usfKl  when 
establish- 
ments were 
in  full  op- 
eration. 

Percent- 
age pur- 
chased 
within 
last  10 
years. 

13 

878 
36 
30 

247 

1.420 

9$ 

750 

100 
90 
85 
75 
70 
49 
33.33 

1 

30 
246 
600 

25 
20 
10 

1 

4 

I 

1 

2 

Total    (27    cstJiblish- 

2 

4,335 

1 

58.36 

1 

All  sorts  of  motor  arrangements  are  found  in  clothing  manufac- 
turing plants,  from  individual  motors  to  one  large  motor  for  the 
entire  plant.  Few  manufacturers  have  studied  the  seasonal  fluctua- 
tions of  their  business  sufficiently  to  determine  an  efficient  arrange- 
ment of  machines  per  motor  that  will  eliminate  waste  of  power,  not 
only  in  didl  seasons  but  also  when  only  one  section,. or  part  of  a  section, 
is  working  overtime. 


f 


4 


182 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY, 


SHRINKING   CLOTH. 


It  has  often  been  stated  that  a  standard  rule  to  cover  the  loss 
through  shrinkage  can  not  be  formulated,  because  goods  of  different 
character,  weight,  and  construction,  and  even  similar  goods  under 
different  conditions,  shrink  differently.  This  is  the  excuse  given  by 
many  manufacturers  who  take  no  account  of  shrinkage  except  the 
slight  cost  of  the  process,  in  reckoning  the  total  cost  of  a  garment. 
Some  manufacturers  who  include  their  shrinkage,  measure  their 
goods  before  they  arc  shrunk.  At  the  beginning  of  a  season  they 
lay  out  the  pattern  of  a  new  sample  on  unshrunk  goods,  and  the 
yardage  then  recorded  is  calculated  to  be  the  average  used  in  a  suit 
or  coat.  As  previously  stated,  the  same  goods  will  snrink  differently 
under  different  conditions,  especially  if  they  are  steam-shrunk  on 
one  occasion  and  London-shrunk  on  another.  This  method,  then, 
while  it  takes  care  of  the  shrinking,  does  not  do  so  accurately  or 
satisfactorily. 

With  the  conditions  described,  there  is  apparently  only  one  way 
to  take  accurate  account  of  the  shrinking.  The  yardage  used  in  a 
suit  or  coat  varying  with  each  piece  of  goods,  the  only  proper  way  is 
to  reckon  the  shrinkage  of  each  piece  of  goods.  By  the  following 
formula  the  cost  per  yard  of  shrunk  cloth  may  be  correctly  ascer- 
tained: 

Number  of  yards  before  shrunk  X net 

price    per    yard -f  cost  of  shrinking    ^t  x      _*  j    «  i.       i     i  xt.        3 

J-Tr= — \ 7 J — ji TT^—ip ^=Net  cost  per  yard  of  shrunk  cloth  used. 

Number  of  yards  after  shrinking  *^     ^ 


Assuming  that  a  piece  of  ^oods  measures  50  yards  before  it  is 
shrunk  and  48  yards  after  shrinking,  that  the  net  price  per  yard  is 
$1  and  the  cost  of  shrinking  is  $0.50,  we  have: 

Net  cost  per  yard  of  shrunk  cloth  used= -^ — '■ — =$1.05. 

Measuring  the  goods  whenever  a  style  is  cut,  and  multiplying  the 
yardage  by  the  net  cost  per  yard  of  shrunk  cloth  used,  gives  the 
actual  cost  of  the  cloth  m  any  particular  style  of  suit.  Such  a 
method,  though  accurate,  requires  constant  calculating  of  yardages 
used,  but  many  manufacturers  consider  that  averages  are  good 
enough.  Even  a  study  of  averages  based  on  a  sufficient  number  of 
calculations  with  the  foregoing  formula  would  be  of  some  value, 
especially  for  those  who  at  present  pay  little  or  no  attention  to  losses 
from  shrinkage. 

INVENTORIES. 

Few  houses  keep  a  perpetual  inventory  of  materials.  One  big 
house  claimed  it  had  formerly  used  such  an  inventory  but  had  dis- 
carded it  as  not  being  worth  the  time  and  expense  required  to  keep 
it.  Most  manufacturers  take  an  inventory  only  once  a  year,  and 
often  this  is  done  very  carelessly.  A  few  take  semiannual  inven- 
tories, and  a  very  few  have  a  system  whereby  the  supply  of  every 
kind  of  cloth  or  trimming  or  of  every  style  of  made-up  goods  can  be 
ascertained  at  a  moment's  notice.  Very  few  require  cutters  to 
deduct  the  yardage  cut  from  the  original  yardage  marked  on  the 


^    r* 


MANUFACTURING   CONDITIONS. 


183 


1^ 


) 


Eiece-goods  tickets,  so  that  at  a  glance  the  remaining  yardage  may 
e  known. 

As  to  the  price  per  yard  in  calculating  the  inventory,  all  sorts  of 
variations  appear.  Some  manufacturers  will  calculate  the  value 
of  their  goods  at  market  price,  others  at  net  cost  price,  others  at 
net  cost  price  less  a  fixed  depreciation,  and  still  others  at  net  cost 
price  less  a  percentage  of  depreciation  based  on  what  they  consider 
thegoods  will  be  worth  the  following  season. 

While  most  clothing  manufacturers  charge  interest  on  the  capital 
invested,  they  rarely  charge  interest  on  goods,  raw  and  finisned, 
that  have  been  paia  for  and  that  remain  on  shelves  or  racks  for 
months. 

False  economy  is  responsible  in  many  instances  for  an  inferior 
product.  A  manufacturer  will  throw  away  50  cents  per  imit  by 
mefficiency  in  his  factory  and  try  to  make  it  up  by  having  cloth 
steam-shrunk  instead  of  London-shrunk,  by  not  shrinking  the  tapes, 
linings,  etc.,  by  substituting  inferior  canvas,  tapes,  etc. — practices 
that  result  in  deterioration  of  the  product  and  eventually  in  loss  of 
business. 

THE   CUTTING  ROOM. 

One  of  the  chief  causes  of  underproduction  in  the  cutting  room 
is  the  lack  in  many  cases  of  an  adequate  system  of  grouping  orders 
so  as  to  permit  the  greatest  bulk  cutting.  This  statement  does  not 
apply  to  the  houses  that  manufacture  the  best  grade  of  clothing, 
where  the  suits  are  cut  one  or  two  at  a  time. 

In  many  factories  cutters  work  where  the  dayhght  is  insufficient 
and  the  artificial  fighting,  conditions  are  poor.  Artificial  fight  is 
bad  enough,  but  doubly  so  when  the  fighting  conditions  are  inade- 
quate. (Sten  the  fights  are  directly  overhead  and  cast  shadows 
which  cause  eyestrain.  In  many  factories  the  floors  are  not  smooth 
enough  for  easy  walking.  In  some  the  cutters  walking  around  the 
tables  strike  the  table  legs,  which  are  not  set  in  far  enough.  These 
annoyances  interrupt  work,  lessen  the  cutter's  stamina  and  endur- 
rance,  and  decrease  production. 

To  one  who  has  witnessed  the  great  amount  of  time  wasted  by 
cutters  in  many  factories  trying  to  locate  a  particular  pattern  from 
himdreds  hung  promiscuously  on  the  wall,  the  need  is  evident  for 
some  system  by  means  of  which  particular  patterns  may  be  easily 
located.  Not  only  does  the  cutter  waste  valuable  time,  but  his 
annoyance  when  ne  is  imable  to  locate  the  desired  pattern  reacts 
unfavorably  on  his  subsequent  work. 

No  doubt  the  greatest  waste  of  time  and  effort  of  the  skiUed, 
highly  paid  cutter  is  the  shifting  around  of  the  pattern  so  as  to 
secure  tne  best  possible  lay.  In  most  houses  the  marker,  or  cutter, 
figures  out  his  lay  every  time  a  style  is  to  be  cut.  The  fact  that  he 
marks  the  same  pattern  many  times  a  season  does  not  help  much, 
for  he  has  such  a  variety  of  patterns  that  the  same  style  recurring 
at  different  intervals  rarely  gives  him  the  opportunity  of  firmly 
fixing  in  mind  the  proper  place  on  the  lay  for  each  pattern.  This 
waste  of  time  could  be  saved  if  at  the  beginning  of  the  season,  after 
the  designer  or  head  cutter  had  experimented  with  all  the  styles 
for  the  season,  there  were  drawn  a  perfect  lay  plan  for  each  style. 


184 


MEN  S   FACTOBY-MADE  CLOTHING  INDUSTRY. 


H^ 


MANUFACTURING   CONDITIONS. 


185 


The  cutters  could  be  eiven  copies  of  the  plan  for  their  ^idance, 
and  thev  could  make  tne  best  arrangement  of  patterns  without  loss 
of  time  Dy  looking  at  the  model  instead  of  experimenting  by  shifting 
the  patterns  aroimd. 

Such  a  scheme  would  save  not  only  time  but  cloth  as  well,  and  the 
whole  saving  during  a  season  would  be  large.  The  manufacturer 
who  calculates  accurately  the  yardage  in  a  particular  suit  does  so 
on  the  basis  of  the  patterns  bemg  most  economically  placed  on  the 
lay.  Different  cutters,  however,  usually  require  yardages  to  cut  an 
order  if  they  are  permitted  to  use  their  own  judgment.  In  view  of 
the  fact  that  a  cutter's  ability  is  generally  judged  by  the  amount  of 
goods  cut,  and  that  the  manufacturer  seldom  investigates  or  employs 
a  system  whereby  only  the  yardage  allowed  is  cut,  the  cutters  in  the 
rusn  of  trying  to  turn  out  a  day  s  work  often  use  more  goods  than 
is  necessary. 

In  cutting  trimmings  there  is  great  waste  of  material  and  labor. 
In  the  old  days  whole  pieces  of  lining  and  other  trimmings  were  sent 
to  the  contractor,  according  to  the  manufacturer's  estimate  of  what 
was  req^uired  for  the  work  in  hand.  This  carelessness  as  to  trimmings 
still  exists,  probably  because  of  their  relativelv  low  value.  Trim- 
mings can  be  cut  as  exactly  as  the  cloth,  but  tne  great  majority  of 
establishments  cut  trimmings  to  allow  for  further  cutting  in  the 
factory.  This  method  not  only  is  a  waste  of  material,  but  necessi- 
tates the  employment  of  a  fitter.  If  the  trimmings  were  cut  exactly, 
the  extra  material  would  be  saved,  the  services  of  the  fitter  could  be 
dispensed  with,  and  much  of  the  cutting  in  the  various  operations 
would  be  saved.  This  inexact  cutting  of  trinunings  is  probably  due 
to  the  employment  of  inexperienced  cutters,  usually  apprentices. 
It  is  another  case  of  false  economy,  based  on  the  manufacturer's  idea 
that  he  can  not  afford  to  pay  as  much  for  cutting  the  trinunings  as 
he  can  for  cutting  the  cloth.  He  does  not  consider  that  this  saving  in 
the  wages  of  the  cutter  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  extra 
cost  of  trimming,  the  wages  of  the  fitter,  and  the  extra  time  required 
to  turn  out  a  miit. 

The  chalk  required  to  mark  a  lay  must  have  a  fine  edge,  and  the 
cutter  sharpens  chalk  many  times  a  day.  Cutters  are  paid  by  the 
week  and  their  wages  are  among  the  highest  in  a  clothing  factory. 
The  loss  occasioned  by  the  cutters  sharpening  chalk  is  considerable 
during  a  season.  One  resourceful  New  York  manufacturer  has  in- 
vented a  device  for  sharpening  chalk,  operated  by  a  small  boy,  which 
not  only  saves  the  time  of  the  cutters  but  makes  a  better  edge  and 
saves  much  of  the  chalk  as  well. 

ROUTING. 

The  plant  should  be  laid  out  so  that  the  raw  material  brought  into 
the  building  enters  the  storeroom.  Next  in  order  should  come  the 
cutting  department,  trimming  department,  manufacturing  depart- 
ment, stock  department,  and  finallv  the  shipping  department.  The 
storeroom  and  shipping  room  should  be  located  at  the  freight  eleva- 
tors. The  usual  plant  has  no  such  arrangement.  Frequently  the 
cutting  department  is  located  where  the  stock  department  ought  to 
be,  the  stock  department  where  the  manufacturing  department  ought 
to  be,  etc.     Within  the  various  departments  all  sorts  of  inefficient 


'/ 


^ 


4- 


i 


/ 


arrangements  prevail,  sometimes  due  to  poor  management  and  some- 
times to  the  unfitness  of  the  building  for  the  manufacturing  of 
clothing. 

Routmg  is  a  basic  factor  of  manufacturing  success.  In  most  fac- 
tories there  is  no  calculated  efficient  production  for  the  factory,  nor 
a  balance  of  production  between  departments  and  sections.  The 
goods,  instead  of  continuing  in  one  direction  are  constantly  traveling 
back  and  forth,  because  the  route  is  not  properly  laid  out  and  the  work 
is  not  examined  after  each  operation.  The  success  of  a  routing  sys- 
tem depends  not  only  upon  the  arrangement  of  the  factory  but  also 
upon  the  scheduhng  of  the  work  from  a  central  planning  office,  such 
a  schedule  providing  for  the  completion  of  a  certain  unit  of  work  in 
a  specified  time. 

In  one  establishment  an  agent  of  the  Bureau  noticed  that  a  coat 
was  carried  across  the  factory  from  operation  No.  4  to  operation 
No.  5,  and  then  back  across  the  floor  again  to  operation  No.  6. 
The  reason  for  this  extensive  traveling  was  that  operation  No.  5 
reauired  exceptionally  good  light  while  operations  No.  4  and  No.  6 
did  not.  The  workers  on  operation  No.  5  required  a  window,  and  as 
the  windows  of  this  plant  were  on  one  side,  the  coat  had  to  make  a 
roimd  trip  of  about  100  yards.  In  this  case,  the  waste  of  time  was 
due  to  the  unsuitabiUty  of  the  building,  but  in  many  cases  such 
roundabout  routing  in  factory  operations  is  due  to  the  manufacturer's 
ignorance  of  the  principles  involved  in  laying  out  a  plant  scientifically. 

This  discontinuous  order  of  operations  results  not  only  in  much 
waste  of  time  but  in  other  serious  disturbances.  The  floor  boy  who 
carries  the  work  often  stops  to  talk,  distracting  the  attention  of  the 
operators,  and  his  constant  moving. about  causes  the  parts  of  the 
garments  to  get  mixed  in  transit,  with  the  result  that  frequently 
orders  that  should  be  turned  out  promptly  are  delayed. 

The  number  of  manufacturers  who  have  studied  the  time  necessary 
for  completing  a  garment  is  small,  and  the  ordinary  manufacturer 
when  given  an  order  can  not  tell  definitely  when  it  will  be  ready  for 
shipment.  With  a  very  few  exceptions,  an  efficient  system  that 
would  permit  a  regular  service,  and  a  rush  service  for  specials  on 
hurry-up  orders,  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  industry.  Usually  the 
attempt  to  rush  an  order  results  in  the  remaining  orders  being  delayed 
unduly  long.  A  control  board,  such  as  the  one  described  in  the  sec- 
tion on  *'The  efficient  factory,"  by  means  of  which  the  flow  of  work 
in  the  factory  can  be  regulated,  is  rarely  found.  As  for  a  routing 
diagram,  a  chart  for  the  routing  of  work  mapped  out  in  advance, 
most  manufacturers  have  never  even  heard  of  it. 

If  the  clothing  manufacturer  managed  a  railroad  or  street  railway 
he  would  appreciate  the  vital  importance  of  a  routing  system,  but  in 
many  cases  ne  does  not  seem  to  realize  that  turning  out  an  order  of 
clothing  without  a  clearly  defined  routing  schedule  takes  several  days 
or  weeks  longer  than  is  necessary.  The  instaUation  of  a  proper  rout- 
ing system  would  result  in  great  economies  not  only  in  lowermg  costs 
but  m  preventing  cancellations  due  to  late  dehveries.  The  really 
capable  clothing  manufacturer  now  realizes  that  he  must  have  a  fac- 
tory in  which  tne  physical  conditions  and  arrangement  are  perfect, 
combined  with  a  routmg  schedule  in  accord  with  that  arrangement. 


-»-» 


186 


mbn's  factory-made  clothing  ikdustry. 


MANUFACTURING    CONDITIONS. 


187 


TRAINING   OF  HELP  AND  METHOD  OF  WORK. 

In  contrast  to  other  lar^  industries,  the  clothing  trade  has  no  system 
of  industrial  training.  When  a  tailor  is  employed,  the  only  question 
generally  asked  is  where  he  has  worked  last.  Usually  no  examination 
of  the  applicant  is  made,  the  manufacturer  he  last  worked  for  is  rarely 
referred  to,  and  after  he  is  engaged  little  attention  is  paid  to  training 
him  for  the  kind  of  work  for  wnich  ho  is  best  adapted.  Along  with 
this  lack  of  system  goes  the  driving  of  workers,  the  only  way  of  speed- 
ing up  with  which  the  ordinary  manufacturer  is  acquainted.  It  is 
easy  to  engage  those  who  claim  to  be  experienced  tailors.  To  train 
them  requires  ability, ^energy,  time,  and  money.  The  following  is 
quoted  from  an  article  in  the  Saturday  Evening  rost  of  May  15,  1915: 

"It  is  cheaper  to  experiment  with  office  boys,  shop  boys,  and  banners  than  with 
sales  managers,"  a  well-known  efficiency  expert  declared  recently.  "The  man  who 
hires  his  cheapest  help  with  as  much  care  as  he  would  use  in  selecting  a  department 
head  or  a  general  manager  will  generally  find  it  unneceseory  to  pay  a  high  premium 
to  dislodge  a  big  man  from  the  top  of  a  competitor's  organization.  Every  man  or  boy 
who  is  hired  to  work  with  his  hands  should  be  considered  with  a  view  to  the  fact  that 
he  holds  promise  of  being  able  to  work  with  his  head.  Hire  the  right  kind  of  office 
boys,  stocK  boys,  messengers,  and  helpers  and  you  will  establish  an  almost  automatic 
supply  of  good  salesmen,  superintendente,  and  executives. 

"feck  your  shop  boys  as  carefullv  and  as  intelligently  as  you  would  select  a  high- 
priced  superintendent,  and  you  will  ultimately  find  that,  as  a  general  rule,  you  will 
not  have  to  go  outside  your  own  organization  for  competent  men  with  whom  to  fill 
your  positions  that  command  salaries  instead  of  wages.  You  will,  in  short,  command 
your  own  source  of  supply  for  all  the  hi^^her  positions  in  your  organization.  This  takes 
time,  vigilance,  and  intelligence,  and  it  can  not  be  done  in  a  month  or  a  year;  but  it 
is  the  only  solid  and  permanent  basis  on  which  to  build.  I  have  seen  it  worked  out  to 
convincing  conclusions  in  scores  of  cases." 

After  the  workers  have  been  carefully  selected,  a  system  of  training 
will  enable  them  to  utihze  their  natural  capacities  in  the  most  pro- 
ductive way,  especially  if  the  training  includes  such  indirect  but 
powerful  influences  as  the  stimulation  of  ambition  and  the  general 
development  of  character.  Employees  should  be  more  or  less 
permanent,  for  under  the  present  system,  by  which  tailors  rarely 
work  in  the  same  shop  two  seasons,  the  worker  can  not,  even  though 
he  tries,  produce  his  oest.  The  manufacturer  must  plan  his  business 
so  as  to  make  employment  steady  enough  to  hold  a  permanent  well- 
trained  labor  force. 

Well-trained  workers  do  not  need  urging  to  take  an  interest  in  the 
business  or  in  their  work.  They  realize  that  the  owner's  interests 
and  theirs  are  compatible  and  mutual.  A  force  of  such  workers 
would  easily  see  the  fallacy  of  the  statement  that  increased  produc- 
tion necessarily  means  less  work  per  employee. 

The  larger  the  factory  the  greater  the  dependence  upon  the  labor 
that  makes  the  factory  possible.  The  large  manufacturer  will  find 
the  highest  success  only  with  a  system  of  training  and  fair  treatment 
for  his  employees,  because  the  worker's  best  efforts  are  exerted  when 
he  gives  his  energy  voluntarily  and  when  he  is  contented.  The  best 
results  are  obtained  when  there  exists  between  employer  and 
employee  a  spirit  of  cooperation  and  mutual  respect. 

Manufacturers  who  contemplate  training  employees  should  utilize 
raw  and  not  experienced  help.  Experienced  tailors  can  not  outgrow 
their  old  faults  nor  can  they  adapt  themselves  to  the  new  order  of 
things.     Furthermore,  having  learned  their  trades  under  masters  of 


.  y 


/^ 


i 


-i 


i 


different  skill  and  ideas,  they  can  not,  as  a  group,  turn  out  a  uniform 
product.  Raw  help  is  more  alert  and  adaptable.  Having  no 
previous  settled  ideas  of  how  to  do  a  thing  nor  fixed  ways  of  doing  it, 
they  learn  the  proper  method  easily  and  quickly. 

The  skilled  tailor  can  do  but  one  thin^.  A  worker  should  not  be 
trained  for  one  operation  only,  but,  starting  with  the  easiest,  should 
be  trained  gradually  in  each  succeeding,  more  difficult,  operation. 
This  method  not  only  produces  a  well-balanced  worker  but  provides 
an  opportimity  for  promotion  and  better  pay,  to  which  the  skilled 
tailor  can  not  look  forward.  The  tailor's  wages  depend  upon  the 
amount  of  work,  not  the  kind  of  work.  The  well-balanced,  trained 
factory  employee  can  be  shifted  about  from  one  operation  to  another 
asVecessi'ty  demands.  A  worker,  provided  he  is  oi  the  proper  timber, 
need  not  be  discharged  because  he  is  unsuited  to  certain  operations, 
but  can  be  tried  on  all  operations  until  the  one  for  which  ne  is  best 
suited  is  discovered. 

The  greatest  benefit  derived  from  training  help  is  that  it  breaks  up 
the  dependence  upon  the  skilled  tailor.  It  enables  the  manufacturer 
to  obtain  better  help,  gives  him  a  wider  field  for  selection,  and  enables 
him  to  establish  his  factory  in  any  locality  of  whose  natural  and 
special  advantages  he  wishes  to  avail  himself.  Other  benefits  are 
increase  of  output,  decrease  in  cost  of  production,  and  therefore 
better  paid  and  better  satisfied  workers,  and  better  quality  and 
greater  uniformity  in  the  product. 

In  a  proper  system  of  training  help  the  greatest  difficulty  will  come 
in  convincing  the  worker  that  the  training  is  for  his  best  interest. 
Manufacturers  must  cease  the  general  practice  of  doing  things  simply 
because  other  manufacturers  do  them.  A  system  of  training  help 
that  would  be  correct  for  one  plant  would  be  incorrect  for  another. 
Each  manufacturer  must  work  out  a  system  adapted  to  his  own 
needs.  Welfare  work,  now  generally  lacking,  should  be  introduced, 
not  as  a  philanthropy  but  as  an  investment  that  will  yield  profitable 
returns. 

By  the  old  method,  still  employed  by  some  manufacturers,  the 
entire  plant  is  made  up  of  units  of  workers  in  groups,  seldom  very 
large,  each  group  producing  a  certain  number  of  garments  and  work- 
ing independently  of  the  others.  The  divisions  of  labor  are  not  very 
great,  one  worker  often  making  an  entire  part. 

The  scientific  modern  method  is  to  consider  all  the  employees  of 
the  factory  a  single  unit.  The  making  of  the  garment  is  then  divided 
into  a  great  number  of  minute  operations,  each  of  which  certain 
workers  are  trained  to  perform.  The  operations  are  not  to  be  per- 
formed as  the  workers  think  best,  but  the  manufacturer,  after  diligent 
study  and  experiment,  determines  the  best  methods,  which  are  then 
standardized.  Through  written  rules  and  physical  demonstrations 
the  workers  are  taught  the  standard  method  for  each  operation  by  a 
corps  of  expert  instructors,  who  can  be  utiUzed  as  examiners  or  on 
other  work  when  time  permits. 

With  the  standardization  of  operations,  there  should  be  time  and 
motion  studies,  which,  except  in  a  very  few  instances,  have  not  been 
made  in  the  clothing  industry.  It  is,  however,  not  advisable  to 
undertake  such  studies  until  the  factory  is  well  organized  in  all  other 
details.    The  purpose  of  these  studies  should  be  to  increase  produc- 


f 


> 


1*1 


188 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


tion  and  the  opportunity  for  earnings.  In  a  well-managed  factory 
high  wages  usually  indicate  a  low  percentage  of  labor  cost  and  a 
high  percentage  of  profit.  If  the  employees  suspect  that  the  object 
is  to  lower  wages,  the  time  studies  become  valueless,  because  the 
time  determined  as  a  standard  for  a  particular  operation  would  be 
largely  affected  by  the  employees'  dissatisfaction.  The  accuracy  and 
value  of  these  studies  depend  on  the  employees  doing  their  utmost 
m  cooperating  with  the  management. 

THE   OFFICE. 

In  the  office  of  many  clothing  factories  no  reliable  and  permanent 
records  are  immediately  accessible.  Valuable  letters  are  destroyed 
or  can  not  be  found.  When  incoming  letters  and  copies  of  outgoing 
letters  are  kept,  no  adequate  numbering  or  indexing  system  is  em- 
ployed, and  a  reference  to  a  letter  of  the  previous  month  generally 
requires  a  long  search.  The  use  of  stamped  envelopes  is  infrequent, 
and  It  IS  a  usual  sight  in  a  large  estabhshment  to  see  the  bookkeeper 
or  stenographer  spending  the  hour  from  5  p.  m.  to  6  p.  m.,  or,  at  the 
end  of  the  month  when  bills  and  statements  are  being  sent  out,  the 
^eater  part  of  the  day,  pasting  stamps  on  envelopes.  The  telephone 
IS  used  for  every  occasion,  the  cost  per  call  being  so  small  that  the 
total  cost  is  lost  sight  of.  Often  goods  for  future  dehvcry  are  ordered 
by  telephone  when  a  post  card  would  suffice.  There  are  no  printed 
forms  for  use  on  different  occasions  to  facilitate  correspondence,  such 
as  an  acknowledgment  of  an  order,  an  answer  to  an  inquiry  as  to 
date  of  shipment,  etc.,  but  each  inauiry  or  incoming  letter  requires  a 
typewritten  reply.  Expensive  embossed  or  engraved  stationery  is 
often  used  for  continuation  sheets. 

The  usual  office  does  not  have  proper  equipment  for  efficient  man- 
agement. Dictaphones,  adding  machuies,  and  computing  machines 
are  rare.  Stenographers  waste  time  in  sharpenmg  pencils  which 
could  be  pointed  more  quickly  and  better  by  a  machine. 

In  many  cases  the  idea  that  cheap  work  is  economical  is  responsible 
for  the  employment  of  an  office  force  imfit  for  the  work.  This  short- 
sighted policv  often  leads  to  the  hiring  of  vomig  business-school 
graduates,  who  are  expected  to  do  at  once  the  fuB  work  of  experi- 
enced clerks.  The  new  bookkeeper  or  stenographer  is  left  to  grope 
and  do  the  best  of  which  his  theoretical  training  or  limited  experi- 
ence makes  him  capable. 

Inadequate  cost-finding  systems  are  discussed  in  a  chapter  of  this 
report  headed  **Cost  finding  and  accounting  conditions." 


k 


;.,(  • 


i 


CHAPTER  V. 
WOBKIlfG  CONDITIONS. 

CHANGES  IN  LABOB  CONDITIONS. 

In  the  early  days,  when  the  industry  was  small,  tho  operating  was 
done  largely  in  tne  homes  of  the  workers,  chiefly  Germans,  under 
conditions  of  their  own  choosing;  that  is,  so  far  as  they  related  to  the 
conditions  in  their  own  homes.  Following  this  period,  and  during 
the  time  that  the  contract  system  was  developing,  labor  conditions 
were  at  their  worst.  The  sweat  shop,  task  system,  charges  for  sup- 
plies and  power,  dark  and  poorly  ventilated  rooms  with  Uttle  or  no 
protection  from  fire,  long  nours,  and  low  wages  were  some  of  the 
evils  that  existed. 

Partly  through  the  demands  of  labor  and  partly  through  the  action 
of  the  manufacturers  and  of  the  pubhc,  laws  were  passed  in  the 
various  States  which  did  away  witn  or  greatly  lessened  these  evils 
in  the  industry. 

Conditions  were  improved  not  only  through  legislative  action,  but 
by  agreements  between  the  unions  and  manufacturers'  associations 
or  between  the  unions  and  manufacturers  acting  independently  of 
associations.  Such  associations  and  manufacturers  assumed  the 
position  that  their  products  would  be  better  made  and  their  output 
greater  if  the  conditions  surrounding  the  workers  were  such  as  would 
cause  few  or  no  complaints. 

Many  manufacturers  who  believe  in  looking  after  the  weKare  of 
their  employees  have  not  raised  their  standards  to  ideal  conditions, 
because  other  manufacturers,  particularly  those  known  in  the  trade 
as '  'pirates,"  keep  their  standards  low.  They  consider  only  immediate 
pronts  and  not  tne  establishment  of  a  permanent  business.  These 
' 'pirates"  usually  operate  only  in  good  years;  when  there  is  a  period 
of  depression  in  the  industry  they  suspend  operations  until  a  more 
favorable  time.  They  thus  reap  the  oenefits  from  good  years  and 
suffer  no  losses  in  the  bad  years,  whereas  the  regular  manufacturer 
has  to  take  the  bad  years  with  the  good,  and  for  this  reason  some- 
times hesitates  to  make  the  investments  necessary  to  make  improve- 
ments in  which  he  beheves. 

Sweat  shops  and  the  task  system  have  been  practically  eliminated, 
the  number  of  contract  shops  has  been  reduced,  shorter  hours  with- 
out a  reduction  in  wages  have  been  granted  to  employees,  and 
sanitary  conditions  in  tne  shops  of  the  manufacturers  and  in  the 
homes  of  the  employees  have  been  greatly  improved.  Labor  enjoys 
more  privileges,  better  wages,  and  shorter  hours  than  formerly,  and 
the  clothing  trade  no  longer  deserves  to  be  called  a  "sweated" 
industry. 

189 


I 


190 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY, 


PIECEWOSK  AND  TIME-WOBE. 


w 


WORKING   CONDITIONS. 


191 


In  the  old  days,  when  shops  were  small,  the  owner  was  acquainted 
with  his  help,  and  when  manufacturing  stock  was  the  rule,  time-work 
was  the  usual  basis  for  direct  labor  payment.  With  the  advent  of 
the  big  shop,  in  the  hiring  of  whose  hundreds  of  employees  knowledge 
of  the  worker's  abiUty  was  unknown,  and  with  manufacturing  for 
orders  superseding  manufacture  of  stock,  the  great  subdivision  of  labor 
displaced  the  skiUed  tailor,  and  piecework  largely  supplanted  time- 
work. 

Manufacturers  generally  prefer  piecework,  for  several  reasons.  It 
ehminates  discrimination  and  favoritism,  saves  constant  supervision 
and  driving  of  the  workers,  and  weeds  out  the  inefficient  workers. 
It  encourages  workers  to  greater  production,  which  lessens  the  per- 
centage of  overhead  expense.  It  fixes  in  advance  the  direct-labor 
cost  of  units,  which  under  a  time-rate  system  could  be  ascertained 
only  after  time  studies  involving  expense. 

The  skilled,  capable  worker  usually  prefers  piecework,  as  it  enables 
him  to  take  the  greatest  possible  advantage  of  his  skill.  The 
mediocre,  unskilled,  slow  worker  prefers,  as  is  to  be  expected,  the 
time-rate  system.  The  trade  union  prefers  the  time-rate  system  for 
two  reasons:  First,  because  the  union  seeks  the  benefit  of  the  mass 
of  workers  and  not  of  the  individual  highly  skilled  worker,  and 
secondly,  to  protect  the  worker  against  himself.  Jews  and  Italians 
are  the  great  majority  of  workers  in  the  clothing  trade.  Both  are 
tireless,  unceasing  workers,  if  they  can  thereby  increase  their  earnings. 
The  piece-price  system  gives  these  workers  the  incentive  to  work 
long  nours,  on  houdays,  etc.,  beyond  the  hmits  of  healthy  endeavor. 
To  remedy  this  evil  tne  union  favors  the  time-work  system. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  better  work  is  obtained  if  the  em- 
ployees are  on  time-work.  Certain  manufacturers  prefer  time-work 
on  their  better  grades  of  garments,  especially  coats,  although  they 
may  be  in  favor  of  piecework  on  grades  that  do  not  require  the  finest 
workmanship.  The  chief  argument  against  piecework  is  that  it  tends 
to  the  ''speeding  up^'  of  the  employees,  wnich  sacrifices  quality  to 
quantity. 

Examining  and  sponging  the  cloth,  cutting  and  trimming  the 
garments,  examining,  cleaning,  and  brushing  the  finished  product, 
and  busheling  are  generally  on  a  time  basis,  while  operating,  oasting, 
and  pressing  are  generally  on  a  piece  basis.  The  general  tendency 
is  toward  piecework  for  all  occupations  which  do  not  require  too 
much  attention  on  the  part  of  the  employees  and  of  which  the  unit 
of  measure  can  be  readily  determined. 

All  manufacturers  were  in  accord  in  stating  that  wages  had  increased 
in  the  last  few  years,  but  varied  in  their  opinions  as  to  the  amount  of 
increase  and  whether  or  not  the  relative  increase  was  the  same  in 
different  localities. 

Table  40  gives,  by  establishments,  the  niimber  of  employees  by 
age  and  sex  who  are  doing  time  and  piece  work.  Data  are  given 
for  only  two  groups,  representing  the  extremes  in  the  method  of 
operating — that  is.  Group  I,  estabfishments  having  no  operating  con- 
tracted, and  Group  III,  establishments  having  all  operating  con- 
tr^ted. 


: 


Thfe  establishments  having  given  numbers  in  this  table  are  not  the 
same  as  those  with  the  same  numbers  in  previous  tables;  the  num- 
bers were  shifted  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  identification  of  indi- 
vidual concerns. 

Table  40. — Number  of  Employees  Engaged  in  Direct  and  Indirect  Labor, 
BY  Age,  Sex,  and  Time  And  Piece  Workers,  by  Individual  Establishments. 

(Each  line  gives  the  figures  for  a  separate  establishment.] 
GROUP  I.— NO  OPERATING  CONTRACTED   (12  ESTABLISHMENTS). 


16  years  of  age  and  over. 

Under  16  years  of  age. 

All  employees 
sexes. 

of  both 

Estab- 
lish- 
ment. 

Male. 

Female 

Male.a 

Female 

Time. 

Piece. 

Total. 

Time. 

Piece. 

Total. 

Time. 

Time. 

Piece. 

Total. 

Time. 

Piece. 

TotaL 

No.  1... 
No.  2... 
No.3... 
No.  4... 

13f. 
210 

im 

230 
110 
40 
60 
46 
5 
90 
(53 
16 

273 

Hi9 

256 

365 

210 

170 

125 

84 

95 

20 

45 

2 

409 
379 
416 
595 
320 
210 
185 
130 
100 
110 
108 
18 

246 

125 

151 

65 

67 

97 

15 

45 

5 

37 

17 

9 

492 

481 

340 

152 

100 

92 

76 

64 

95 

17 

10 

48 

738 

GOfi 

491 

217 

167 

189 

91 

109 

100 

54 

27 

57 

8 
4 
2 

12 

19 

5 

e' 

12 

25 

5 

402 

358 

318 

295 

177 

140 

75 

94 

10 

141 

80 

25 

765 

656 

596 

517 

310 

262 

201 

148 

190 

37 

55 

50 

1,167 

1,014 

914 

812 

No.  5... 

487 

No.  6... 
No.  7... 

2 

1 

1 

402 
276 

No.  8... 
No.  9... 

2 

1 

1 

242 
200 

No.  10.. 
No.  11.. 

2 

12 

12 

178 
135 

No.  12.. 

75 

Total. 

1,166 

1,814 

2,980 

879 

1,967 

2,846 

20 

50 

6 

56 

2,115 

3,787 

5,902 

GROUP  III.— ALL  OPERATING 

r  CONTRACTED  (20  ESTABLISHMENTS &). 

16  years  of  age  and  over.* 

All  employees  ( 
sexes. 

}fboth 

Establishment. 

Male. 

Female. 

• 

Time. 

Piece. 

Total. 

Time. 

Piece. 

Total. 

Time. 

Piece. 

TotaL 

No.l 

300 

276 

120 

20 

85 

63 

50 

35 

31 

30 

30 

25 

18 

12 

14 

11 

10 

11 

7 

6 

60" 

3' 

300 

276 

120 

80 

85 

66 

50 

35 

31 

30 

30 

25 

18 

12 

14 

11 

10 

11 

7 

6 

50 

49 

40 

16 

12 

6 

10 

8 

5 

5 

4 

3 

4 

5 

2 

4 

3 

4" 

io* 

50 

49 

40 

20 

12 

22 

10 

8 

5 

5 

4 

3 

4 

5 

2 

4 

3 

350 
325 
160 
36 
97 
69 
60 
43 
36 
35 
34 
28 
22 
17 
16 
15 
13 
11 
10 
8 

64" 

ig' 

350 

No.2 

32R 

No.3 

1(10 

No.  4 

inn 

No.5 

97 

88 

No.  6 

No.7 

60 

No.  8 

43 

No.9 

36 

No.  10 

35 

No.  11 

34 

Ko.  12 

28 

No.  13 

22 

No.  14 

17 

No.  15 

16 
15 

No.  16 

No.  17 

12 

No.  18 

11 

No.  19 

3 
2 

3 
2 

10 

No.  20 

g 

Total 

1,154 

63 

1,217 

231 

20 

251 

1,385 

83 

1,468 

a  No  piecewcM-kers. 

>  No  data  reported  for  2  establishments, 

c  No  employees  under  16  years  of  age. 


i    1    I 


/ 


192 


MEN  S  FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


Group  III  reported  no  employees  under  16  years  of  age  and  Group 
I  reported  76  under  the  age  of  16  years  out  of  a  total  of  5,902  em- 
ployees; in  other  words,  those  under  16  years  of  age  were  less  than 
li  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  employees.  Of  the  76  under  the 
age  of  16  years,  20  were  males  and  56  females,  and  all  were  time- 
workers  with  the  exception  of  6  reported  by  one  establishment.  The 
number  of  pieceworkers  in  Group  III  was  63  malea  and  20  females, 
of  whom  3  males  and  16  females  were  employed  by  one  establish- 
ment and  60  males  and  4  females  by  another. 

The  employees  under  16  years  of  age  are  usually  found  in  such 
minor  positions  as  errand  boys  or  girls,  label  pasters,  etc.,  but  they 
are  sometimes  learners  in  the  more  important  occupations.  In  many 
States  laws  have  been  enacted  establishing  a  minimum  age  at  which 
one  can  be  employed,  and  it  is  only  through  a  certificate  obtained 
from  some  public  or  school  official  that  a  person  under  the  required 
age  is  permitted  to  work. 

Another  marked  contrast  between  these  two  groups  is  the  sex  of 
the  employees.  In  Group  I,  the  the  employees  are  nearly  equally 
divided  between  males  ana  females,  while  in  Grroup  III  males  predom- 
inate, being  over  82  per  cent  of  the  totaJ  number  of  employees 
reported. 

There  is  also  a  marked  difference  in  the  manner  of  payment  of 
wages.  In  Group  I  the  piece  rate  predominates,  but  in  Group  III 
practically  aU  the  employees  are  on  a  time  basis.  In  Group  III  the 
number  employed  is  confined  largely  to  the  cutting  room,  where  the 
time  rate  prevails,  not  only  in  establishments  having  dl  operating 
contracted  but  in  establishments  having  no  operating  contractea; 
whereas  in  Group  I  the  greatest  number  employed  is  found  in  the 
sewing  and  pressing  departments,  where  the  piece  rate  prevail. 

For  the  12  establishments  having  no  operating  contracted,  there 
were  reported  5,826  employees  16  years  of  age  and  over,  of  which 
number  2,980  were  males  and  2,846  were  females.  It  will  be  noted 
that  piece  rate  is  more  common  among  the  females  than  the  males, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  many  male  workers  are  found  in  the  cutting 
room,  where  few  women  are  employed  and  where  the  time  rate 
prevails. 

The  employees  under  16  years  of  age  were  confined  almost  entirely 
to  3  establishments,  which  reported  63  out  of  a  total  of  76.  Estab- 
lishment No.  2,  with  29,  showed  the  largest  number  of  such  employees, 
though  it  was  less  than  3  per  cent  of  its  total  employees. 

The  average  number  of  employees  per  estabUsnment  was  492  for 
Group  I  and  73  for  Group  III. 

SASNINGS  AND  HOUBS  OF  LABOB. 

The  tables  and  other  data  in  this  chapter  were  taken  from  a  report 
made  by  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  Department  of  Labor,  on 
wages  and  hours  of  labor  in  the  clothing  industry  diu'ing  the  years 
1911,  1912,  and  1913.« 

The  material  for  this  report  was  obtained  from  establishments  making  men's  outer 
garments — coats,  pants,  vests,  and  overcoats — for  the  trade;  or,  in  other  words,  what 
18  commonly  known  as  men's  jeady-made  clothing.  Special-order  and  merchant- 
tailor  firms  are  not  included.  All  grades  of  ready-made  men's  clothing  from  cheap 
to  high  grade  are  covered  in  the  figures  presented. 


9  PuUetin  of  the  United  States  Btireaa  of  Labor  Statistics,  Whole  No.  16}, 


/' 


-  c;  V      ^ 


»    '1 


-t 


WORKING   CONDITIONS. 


193 


The  information  for  this  report  was  secured  by  agents  of  the  Bureau  from  the  pav 
rolls  and  time  books  of  the  establishments  visited.  The  data  are  for  one  pajr-roll 
period  in  each  year,  generally  a  pay  period  in  Julv  or  August.  With  few  exceptions, 
the  pay  period  covered  one  week.  Data  were  obtained  both  from  clothing  manu- 
facturing ctitablishments  and  from  contractors. 

In  this  report  are  shown  the  prevailing  full-time  weekly  earnii^,  fullrtime  hours 
of  labor  per  week,  and  rates  of  wages  (or  earnings)  per  hour  of  employees  in  the 
principal  occupations  yin  the  manufacture  of  men's  factory-made  clothing  in  the 
United  States.  The  information  herein  contained  was  furnished  by  representative 
establishment^  in  the  leading  clothing-manufacturing  cities.  Figures  are  given  for 
the  years  1912  and  1913. 

The  Bureau  could  not  undertake  to  collect  data  from  all  establishments  in  the 
country.  Ip  selecting  the  representative  establishments  from  which  to  collect  data, 
the  Bureau  sought  to  represent  the  cities  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  industry, 
the  measure  of  importance  being  the  number  of  employees  in  this  particular  industry. 
The  table  whicii  follows  shows  the  leading  cities  in  the  manufacture  of  men's  clothing, 
the  number  of  employees  in  the  industry  in  each  city  in  1910  as  determined  by  the 
United  States  Census  Office,  the  number  of  establishments  and  shops  from  which 
data  were  collected  in  1913,  the  total  number  of  employees  on  the  pay  rolls  of  such 
shops,  and  the  number  of  employees  for  whom  data  were  taken  and  shown  in  this 
report. 

Tabl£  41. — ^ToTAL  Number  op  Employees  in  Men's  Clothing  Manufacturing 
AND  Number  op  Employees  in  Establishments  por  Which  Data  are  Shown 
FOB  1913. 


Number  of 

employees 

reported  by 

United 

States 

Census 

Office,  1916. 

Establishments  for  which  data  are  shown  by  the 
Bureau  of  I/abor  Statistics  for  1913. 

City. 

Number  of 
establish- 
ments. 

Number  of 

sepiu-ate 

shops. 

Numbw  of  employees— 

On  pay  roU. 

For  whom 
data  are 
shown. 

New  York 

61,275 

32,890 

15,090 

8,233 

7,732 

4,769 

4,292 

2,614 

2,560 

2,639 

2,740 

46,349 

63 
6 

i1 

5 

22 

4 

89 
34 
16 
28 
15 
27 
12 

6,450 
7,303 
2,885 
2,129 
2,081 
1,270 
648 

5,359 
6,797 
2,349 
1  752 

Chicago 

Bait  imore 

rhiladelphia 

Rochester 

1,564 
952 

r  jnpinnaH 

Boston 

424 

St .  Louis 

Cleveland 

Milwaukee 

Detroit 

Other  cities 

. 

Total 

191,183 

117 

221 

22,766 

18,197 

Men's  factory-made  clothing  is  made  almost  exclusively  in  lai^e  cities.  The  table 
shows  191,1^3  persons  employed  in  this  industry  in  1910.  Of  this  number  134,281,  or 
70.2  per  cent,  were  employed  in  the  7  cities  in  which  data  were  collected.  Other 
cities  in  which  this  industry  is  of  importance  are  named  in  the  table.  Because  of  the 
limited  resources  of  the  Bureau  the  inquiry  has  been  limited  to  representative  cities 
and  representative  establishments.  Data  are  presented  in  this  bulletin  for  18,197 
employees  in  1913,  or  9.5  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  employees  in  the  industry 
in  the  United  States  in  1910. 

11914°— 16 13 


V 


t'' 


194 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTBY. 


'  r    t'  ■<{  < 


Table  42. — ^Average  and  Classified  Rates  of  Wages  Per  Hour  in  Men's  Cloth- 
ing Manufacturing  in  Each  Year,  by  Cities,  1912  and  1913. 

BASTERS,  COAT:  FEMALE. 

|The  figures  for  1912  and  1913  are  for  identical  establishments,  hence  all  figures  for  1913  are  directly  com- 

I>arable  with  those  for  1912.] 


} 


WOBKING   CONDITIONS. 


195 


Num- 
T>er  of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Nu,m- 
l>erof 
em- 
ploy- 
ees. 

Aver- 
age 
full- 
time 
hours 

week. 

Aver- 
age 
rate 
of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

Number  of  employees  earning  each  classified  rate  of  wages 

per  hour. 

Year  and  city. 

Un- 
der 

7 
cts. 

7 
and 
un- 
der 

8 
cts. 

8  1 
and 
un- 
der 

9 
ots. 

16 
2 
3 

'"'9 

3 



9 

and 
un- 
der 
10 
cts. 

9 
2 
14 
5 
6 
6 
1 

10 
and 
un- 
der 

12 
cts. 

12 
and 
un- 
der 

14 
cts. 

14 

and 
un- 
der 

16 
ots. 

16 
and 
un- 
der 

18 
cts. 

18 
and 
un- 
der 

20 
cts. 

20 
and 
un- 
der 

25 
cts. 

9 
2 

108 

""e 

6 
15 

25 

and 
un- 
der 
30 
cts. 

30 

cts. 

and 

over. 

1912. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 
4 

5 
7 
21 
7 
3 

218 
21 

342 
51 

104 
50 
53 

58.2 
54.0 
54.0 
53.8 
57.0 
54.4 
54.8 

to. 1352 
.1273 
.1996 
.1517 
.1306 
.1379 
.1921 

16 

6 

40 
7 

13 
1 

29 
9 
3 

42 
5 

22 
9 

20 
8 
3 

37 

3 

33 

16 

12 

6 

7 

25 

8 

6 

4 

Chicago 

1 
"'"3 

2 

1 
4 

"i 

40 
13 
13 
5 
10 

42 
5 
4 

3 
6 

43 

1 
1 
1 
5 

21 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

••••j 

Total 

50 

839 

55.5 

.1654 

20 

14 

33 

43 

102 

109 

114 

106 

68 

146 

57 

27 

1913. 

Baltimore 

Boston       

3 

4 
5 
7 
21 
7 

3 

243 
8 

333 
55 

100 
94 
91 

53.0 
50.0 
52.0 
50.9 
52.3 
53.9 
52.0 

.1346 
.1606 
.2254 
.1783 
.15&4 
.1641 
.2239 

7 

10 

26 

64 

SO 
2 

17 
4 

21 

10 
8 

32 
1 

27 
7 

14 

17 
9 

25 
2 

35 

13 
6 

17 
8 

10 

3 

39 

11 

T 

9 

13 

17 

2 

Chicago 

1 

10 
4 

15 

11 

3 

86 
11 
22 
11 
16 

75 
5 
4 
9 

14 

109 

43 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

i 

•  •  ■  • 

9 
8 
1 

Philadelphia  — 
Rochester 

1 

1 

19 

Total 

50 

924 

52.4 

.1843 

1 

8 

12 

45 

107 

112 

107 

106 

92 

163 

63 

r 


o 


^- 


BASTERS,  PANTS: 

FEMALE. 

1912. 
Baltimore    .  ... 

2 
2 
3 
9 
4 

17 

5 

107 

40 

14 

55.0 
54.0 
54.0 
56.9 
54.3 

SO.  1168 

.1885 
.1880 
.1573 
.1025 

5 

4 

3 
2 

9 
9 
3 

2 

1 

1 

1 

12 
5 

1 

"*25 
4 

"RrMtmi 

2 
13 

Chicago 

1 

1 
1 
2 

1 

'■3 

2 
2 
2 

11 

7 
3 

16 
8 
1 

1 

4 

New  York 

Philadelphia  — 

a 

Total 

20 

183 

54.8 

.1682 

1 

4 

9 

10 

26 

23 

26 

15 

18 

90 

15 

6 

1913. 
Tlattiinore 

2 

a 

3 
9 
4 

5 

50 
51 
17 

53.4 
50.0 
52.0 
53.1 
53.6 

.1632 
.2137 
.1699 
.1684 
.1365 

1 

1 

1 

1 
1 
6 
7 
2 

1 

3 

10 

3 

Boston    

Chicago. ........ 

1 

•  •  •  • 

I 

.... 

1 

T 
7 
1 

9 
6 

7 

8 

14 

3 

'      6 

6 
2 

5 
6 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 

1 

Total 

20 

127 

52.7 

.1659 



1 

2 

2 

16 

23 

26 

13 

16 

17 

11 

r, 


"! 


. 

BASTERS, 

VEST:  FEMALE. 

1912. 
Baltimore 

2 

3 

16 

5 

28 

118 

99 

29 

58.2 
54.0 
56.6 
54.6 

$0.1087 
.2216 
.1605 
.1879 

3 

2 

3 

3 

1 
2 

10 

7 

12 

3 

9 

20 

1 

1 

9 

13 

3 

2 
9 

8 
8 

9 
9 
7 

1 

30 
23 
10 

Chicaco 

32 

1 

13 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 

1 

2 

6 

3 

Total 

26 

274 

55.4 

.1845 

4 

4 

9 

6 

29 

33 

25 

27 

35 

64 

33 

15 

1913. 

Baltimore 

Chicaeo 

2 

3 

16 

6 

24 
64 
90 
39 

54.3 
52.0 
53.1 
53.5 

.1409 
.2385 
.1943 
.2110 

•  •  •  • 

1 
1 
1 

•  •  •  • 

1 

6 

7 

3 

10 

3 

5 

13 

4 
3 
8 
3 

""4 

10 

3 

1 
21 
18 
31 

"yi 

13 
3 

1 
10 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 

•  •  •  • 

1 
1 

10 

1 

6 

TotaL 

26 

307 

53.9 

.3041 



3 



S 

17 

30 

31 

17 

16 

01 

83 

17 

r 


Table  42.— Average  and  Classified  Rates  of  Wages  Per  Hour  in  Men's  Cloth- 
ing Manufacturing  in  Each  Year,  by  Cities,  1912  and  191»— Continued. 


BASTERS, 

ALL:  FEMALE 

.« 

Num- 
ber of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Num- 
ber of 
em- 
ploy- 
ees. 

Aver- 
age 
full- 
time 
hours 
per 
week. 

Aver- 
age 
rate 
of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

Number  of  employees  earning  each  classified  rate  of  wages 

per  hour. 

Year  and  city. 

Un- 
der 
7 
cts. 

7 
and 
un- 
der 

8 
cts. 

8 

8 
and 
un- 
der 

9 
cts. 

24 
2 
4 

'"i5 
6 

9 

and 
un- 
der 
10 
cts. 

16 
3 

17 

5 

10 

8 

1 

10 

and 

iin- 

der 

12 

cts. 

12 
and 
un- 
der 

14 
cts. 

14 
and 
un- 
der 

16 
cts. 

39 
3 
58 
16 
32 
10 
7 

16 

and 
un- 
der 
18 
cts. 

28 

"ei 

13 
23 
13 
10 

18 
and 
un- 
der 

20 
cts. 

20 
and 
un- 
der 

25 
cts. 

25 
and 
un- 
der 

30 
cts. 

30 

cts. 

and 

over. 

1913. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 
4 
6 
7 
37 
13 
3 

263 
26 

567 
51 

243 
93 
53 

58.010.1312 
54.0     .1390 
54.0     .2020 
53.8     .1517 
56.8     .1472 
54.4     .1481 
54.8     .1921 

19 

53 

9 
29 

1 

50 
12 

3 

47 
5 

42 
9 

47 

12 
3 

8 

1 
63 

5 
18 
10 

6 

11 

2 
163 

"33 
16 
15 

6 
2 

88 
1 
2 
1 
5 

4 

Chicago 

2 

""\ 

3 

3 

1 
7 
2 

1 

'"'37 
"6 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

Total 

73 

1,296 

55.4 

.1608 

25 

22 

51 

59 
27 

157 

165 

58 
2 

29 
4 

37 

17 
8 

165 

148 

111 

240 

105 

48 

1913. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 

4 
6 
7 
37 
13 
3 

272 
12 

447 

55 

241 

140 

91 

53.1 
50.0 
52.0 
50.9 
53.8 
53.8 
52.0 

.1357 
.1783 
.2210 
.1783 
.1731 
.1704 
.2239 

8 

10 

36 

1 
40 

7 
41 
20 

9 

29 
2 
43 
13 
20 
21 
8 

11 

4 
48 
11 
24 
13 
13 

19 
3 
117 
11 
43 
32 
16 

2 

1 

Chicago 

1 

1 

1 

17 

4 

32 

13 

3 

97 
5 
23 
11 
14 

53 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

.... 

9 

1 

3 

1 

11 
10 

1 

..... 
"Vi 

Total 

73   1,258 

52.5 

.1857 

1 

12 

14 

50 

140 

155 

154 

136 

124 

241 

152 

79 

HAND  SEWERS,  ( 

COAT:  FEMALE. 

1913. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 
4 

5 

9 
25 

7 
3 

303 
47 
1,017 
216 
821 
246 
238 

58.210.1332 
52.9     .1522 
54.0     .1740 
53.4     .1450 
56.6     .1361 
54.3     .1337 
54.6     .1695 

15 

"io 

9 

18 

8 

1 

13 
2 

7 
4 

32 

10 

1 

21 
1 
9 
6 
64 
12 
2 

17 
1 

55 
10 
59 
21 
10 

58 
10 

106 
21 

181 
54 
28 

55 

8 

107 

60 

140 

49 

35 

48 

8 

151 

35 
125 

32 

33 

32 

5 

147 

38 
81 
29 
37 

22 
4 
130 
11 
37 
13 
29 

20 
5 
194 
18 
63 
15 
43 

2 

3 
79 

4 
16 

3 
16 

Chicago 

Cincinnati. 

Now  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

23 

'■"6 
..... 

Total 

56 

2,888 

55.2 

.1526 

61 

1 

69 
3 

115 
3 

173 

15 
1 

15 
3 

32 

18 
4 

458 

29 
5 
62 
10 
91 
37 
18 

454 

432 

369 

246 

358 

123 

30 

1913. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 
4 

\ 

25 

7 
3 

255 
98 
845 
210 
852 
245 
274 

53.6 
50.0 
52.0 
50.5 
52.0 
53.1 
52.0 

.1608 
.1649 
.1924 
.1604 
.1697 
.1748 
.1926 

38 
17 
95 
34 
141 
40 
34 

48 
26 

105 
58 

135 
40 
41 

36 
18 

105 
30 

140 
33 
29 

33 
9 
133 
30 
61 
19 
38 

41 

19 
191 

22 
139 

29 

69 

8 

3 
80 

5 
64 

9 
22 

Chicago 

"3 
3 
1 
1 

1 
3 

6 
3 

1 

3 

7 

14 

8 

■"65 

6 

26 

8 
17 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

TotaL 

66 

2,779 

52.1 

.in6 

9 

16 

35 

88 

252 

399 

453 

391 

323 

510 

191 

112 

HAND  SEWERS,  PANTS: 

FEMALE 

• 

1912. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 
3 

% 

11 
5 
3 

106 
37 

506 
29 

117 
67 
85 

57.6 
54.0 
54.0 
63.9 
56.4 
54.2 
54.3 

SO. 1201 
.1397 
.1646 
.1425 
.1220 
.1198 
.1651 

9 

4 

7 

6 

4 

44 

1 

16 
12 

3 

28 
3 

48 
6 

29 

10 
6 

20 

3 

64 

4 

22 
14 
12 

18 
11 
76 
10 
9 
5 
14 

12 

5 
70 
3 
5 
4 
11 

1 
1 

83 
4 
8 
3 
8 

1 

% 

Chicago 

1 

2 

8 
1 

13 
11 

4 

87 

19 

Cincinnati 

4 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

6 
3 

1 

5 
3 
3 

3 

2 

20 

1 
1 
4 

1 

TotaL 

35 

937 

54.7 

.1497 

20 

15 

44 

86 

130 

139 

143 

110 

108 

112 

26 

6 

•  This  group  is  a  combkiation  of  the  preceding  female  coat,  pants,  and  vest  basters. 


196 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


-7  r-  Ki 


WORKING   CONDITIONS. 


197 


Table  42.— Averagb  and  Classifibd  Ratbs  of  Wages  Per  Hour  in  Men's  Cloth- 
INO  Manupacturino  in  Each  Year,  by  Citibs,  1912  and  1913 — Continued. 

HAND  SEWERS,  PANTS:  FEMALE-€ontinaed. 


Num- 
ber of 
estab- 
Ush- 
ments. 

Cam- 
ber of 
em- 
ploy- 
ees. 

Aver- 

fS 

time 

hours 

per 

week. 

Aver- 
age 
rate 
of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

Nnmber  of  employees  earning  each  classified  rate  of  wages 

per  hour. 

Year  and  city. 

Un- 
der 
7 
Cts. 

7  1 
and 
un- 
der 

8 
cts. 

8 
and 
un- 
der 

9 
cts. 

9  10 
and  and 
un-  un- 
der der 

10  12 
cts.  cts. 

....      6 

2  3 
14     46 

4.... 

3  19 
6      9 
2      9 

13 

and 
un- 
der 
14 
cts. 

14 

and 
un- 
der 

16 
cts. 

16 
and 
un- 
der 

18 
ots. 

18 
and 
un- 
der 

20 
cts. 

30 
and 
un- 
der 

25 
cts. 

25 
and 
un- 
der 

30 
cts. 

30 

cts. 
and 
over. 

1913. 
Baltimore 

3 
3 
5 
5 
11 
6 
3 

39 
32 

461 
31 

117 
54 
96 

53.4 
50.0 
52. 0 
50.5 
52.1 
63.6 
53.0 

10. 1618 
.1511 
.1673 
.1705 
.1547 
.1309 
.1751 

1 
1 
3 

7 
6 
80 
3 
23 
18 
22 

4 
7 

73 
9 

17 
4 
8 

9 

6 
74 

1 
13 

7 
12 

7 
1 

66 
6 
9 
3 

18 

110 

6 

7 
86 

5 
20 

3 
19 

1 

"i 

dilcaco     

15 
2 
4 

S 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

1 

1 

•  •  •  • 

2 
1 

4 
4 

s 

6 

1 

Total 

36 

830 

52.0 

.1633 

2 

4 

13 

31 

91 

168 

122 

121 

145 

36 

7 

HAND  SEWERS,  VEST:  FEMALE. 


HAND  SEWERS,  ALL:  FEMALE.* 


a  This  group  is  a  combination  of  the  preceding  female  coat,  pants,  and  vest  hand  sewers. 


1912. 

Baltimcx^ 

Chicaeo 

2 
3 

4 

13 
6 
3 

44 
295 
23 
97 
23 
88 

50.1 
54.0 
54.0 
56.4 
64.7 
64.4 

SO.  1050 
.1843 
.1266 
.1577 
.1430 
.1617 

7 

1 
1 

9 
3 

2 
15 
2 
2 
2 
9 

13 

21 

9 

10 

1 
13 

5 
9 

8 
14 

4 
16 

4 
43 

2 
21 

4 
12 

3 
41 

"ie 

3 

6 

1 

49 

1 

9 

3 

16 

93 
1 

12 
4 

11 

19 

8 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

1 
1 

3 

1 
2 

5 
2 

1 

3 

2 

3 

Total 

30 

670 

64.9 

.1646 

9 

8 

3 
1 

20 
3 

32 

3 
3 

67 

11 
4 
7 
6 
2 

10 

56 

7 
13 

3 
13 

6 

8 

85 

5 

17 

3 

8 
3 
8 

67 

78 

lao 

23 

5 

1913. 

Baltimore. 

Chicaeo  

3 
3 
4 

13 
5 
3 

44 
291 
19 
91 
25 
82 

54.3 
52.0 
50.6 
52.0 
54.1 
52.0 

.1307 
.2089 
.1369 
.1928 
.1758 
.1826 

1 

4 

34 

6 

13 

4 
47 

■"9 

2 

13 

3 
121 

1 

36 

7 

13 

43 

8 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

3 
3 
3 

9 

1 
8 

5 

1 

4 

4 

Total 

30 

562 

53.2 

.1921 

1 

4     13     40 

49 

43 

76 

74 

170 

61 

17 

^ 


M^-^ 


1913. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 

4 

6 

18 

39 

14 

6 

453 

74 

1,818 

368 
1,035 

336 

411 

58.1 
63.3 
54.0 
53.5 
56.6 
64.4 
64.5 

$0.1274 
.1476 
.1730 
.1432 
.1365 
.1316 
.1648 

31 

"ii 

9 
25 
12 

2 

18 
2 

10 
4 

40 

13 
5 

37 

1 

20 

7 
82 
25 

7 

35 

5 

114 

13 

76 
35 
32 

99 
13 

175 
36 

220 
66 
47 

80 
11 

180 
72 

176 
67 
63 

70 
19 

369 
47 

156 
41 
59 

46 
10 

258 
41 

102 
36 
64 

24 

5 
262 
16 
54 
18 
53 

30 
5 
373 
19 
78 
31 
74 

3 

3 
117 

4 
19 

4 
22 

■  •  •  -  • 

Chica&ro 

39 

CincinnatL 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

"8 

Total 

80 

4,395 

55.1 

.1635 

90 

92 

179 

290 

665 

649 

660 

546 

49 
23 

213 
36 

166 
43 
58 

432 

44 
10 
246 
36 
79 
34 
68 

seo 

50 

36 
398 

28 
185 

38 
100 

172 

8 

3 

138 

7 

77 

10 

35 

40 

1913. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 

4 

6 

18 

39 

14 

5 

338 
130 

1,507 
260 

1,060 
324 
462 

53.7 
50.0 
52.0 
50.6 
52.0 
53.3 
52.0 

.1570 
.1615 
.1881 
.1509 
.1700 
.1675 
.1871 

3 
1 

■3 
4 

1 

1 

6 

•  »  *  ■ 

3 
2 

8 
4 
1 

7 

1 
6 
7 
IS 
13 
1 

18 

3 

32 

7 

38 
36 

8 

45 

8 

113 

17 

116 

48 

37 

83 
32 

188 
40 

176 
64 
64 

87 
33 

195 
70 

160 
46 
57 

Chicaeo ......... 

66 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

7 
33 

8 
23 

Total 

80 

4,161 

53.1 

.1767 

13 

24 

53 

133 

383 

606 

618 

588 

507 

825 

378 

136 

Table  42. — Average  and  Classified  Rates  op  Wages  Per  Hour  in  Men's  Cloth- 
ing Manufacturing  in  Each  Year,  by  Cities,  1912  and  1913 — Continued. 

OPERATORS,  COAT:  FEMALE. 


Num- 
ber of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Num- 
ber of 
em- 
ploy- 
ees. 

Avw- 
age 
full- 
time 
hours 
per 
week. 

Aver- 
age 
rate 
of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

Nnmber  of  employees  earning  each  classified  rate  of  wages 

per  hour. 

Year  and  city. 

Un- 
der 
7 
cts. 

7 
and 
un- 
der 

8 
cts. 

6 

8  9      10 

and  and  and 
tm-j  un-j  un- 
der der  der 

9  10     12 
cts.  cts.  cts. 

12 

and 
tin- 
der 
14 
cts. 

14 

and 
un- 
dee 

16 
cts. 

16 
and 
un- 
der 

18 
cts. 

18 
and 
un- 
der 

20 
cts. 

20 

and 
un- 
der 
25 
cts. 

25 

and 
un- 
der 
30 
cts. 

30 

cts. 
and 
over. 

191a. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 
3 
5 
9 
15 
6 
3 

113 
16 
514 
135 
41 
67 
63 

56.2 
64.0 
54.0 
53.3 
56,0 
54.1 
54.6 

$0.1322 
.1568 
.2089 
.1605 
.1377 
.1504 
.1897 

6 

11 

7 

21 

3 

23 

12 

11 

5 

8 

18 
5 

35 

34 
5 

11 
8 

15 
5 

46 

16 
5 

10 
8 

14 

7 

8 

1 

123 

22 

5 

9 

16 

1 
1 

86 
3 

..... 

Chicaeo 

6 
3 
1 
2 

29 
6 
4 

4 
4 

57 

20 

3 

11 

8 

52 

12 

4 

10 

4 

88 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

1 
3 

•  •  ■  • 

3 
1 
5 

3 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

6 

6 

8 

15 

Total 

44 

949 

54.3 

.1835 

23 

54 

80 

116 

104 

113 

89 

183 

97 

67 

U13. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 
3 
5 
9 
15 
6 
3 

152 

9 

627 

138 

57 

74 

74 

53.2 
50.0 
52.0 
50.6 
52  5 
53.7 
62.0 

.1512 
.1583 
.'JZiS 
.1831 
.1707 
.1708 
.2073 

2 

2 

•  «  -  • 

9 

28 

34 
1 

25 

13 
7 

15 
5 

27 
2 
58 
19 
12 
9 
11 

15 

4 
60 
19 
7 
6 
8 

16 
2 

45 
21 

5 
5 

7 

13 

5 

1 

Chicago 

7 
2 
3 
2 
2 

18 
5 
6 

10 

7 

117 
38 
13 
16 
12 

93 

11 

3 

6 

14 

104 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

1 

2 

3 

4 

1 

PhUadelphia.... 
Rochester 

3 

3 

8 

Total 

44 

1,031 

52.1 

.1989 

3 

4 

6 

26 

74 

100 

138 

118 

101 

209 

132 

121 

OPERATORS,  PANTS:  FEMALE. 


1912. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 
3 

5 
6 
15 
5 
3 

117 

7 
374 
67 
97 
45 
99 

57.1 
54.0 
54.0 
53.5 
56.6 
64.1 
64.7 

to.  1339 
.1865 
.2013 
.1567 
.1928 
.1579 
.1840 

7 

6 

10 

7 
1 

13 
2 
1 
2 
4 

26 

*  •  •  • 

25 

8 

4 

9 

10 

16 
2 

42 

11 
7 
9 

14 

11 
2 
37 
17 
11 
6 
11 

13 

11 

10 
2 

96 
7 

28 
6 

26 

3 

Chicago 

(Mncinnati 

3 
1 
3 

1 

1 

. . . . 
4 

33 
10 
16 
3 
13 

37 
10 
13 

6 

7 

43 
1 
8 
2 

12 

41 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

>  •  •  ■ 

2 

6 
1 

1 

3 

)Total 

39 

806 

54.8 

.1819 

13 

7 

17 

30 

81 

101 

95 

86 

83 

175 

68 

60 

1913. 
Baltimore 

3 
3 

5 
6 
15 
5 
3 

115 
9 

433 
69 
98 
75 
92 

53.8 
50.0 
52.0 
50.5 
52.9 
53.6 
52.0 

.1461 
.1707 
.2218 
.1970 
.2212 
.1525 
.3050 

2 

8 

11 

69 
1 

24 
8 

10 
8 
4 

4 
3 
37 
11 
8 
13 
13 

3 

1 

64 

13 

6 

7 

11 

3 
3 
41 
13 
10 
4 
15 

15 

2 

109 

9 

21 
9 

24 

4 

Boston 

Chicago 

2 

5 
2 
2 
2 

14 
2 
5 

14 
5 

74 
4 

21 
6 

12 

62 

Cincinnati 

7 

New  York 

15 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

8 

3 

1 

2 

8 

Totol 

39 

890 

52.3 

.3019 



8 

8 

16 

51 

124 

87 

105 

88 

189 

120 

94 

OPERATORS,  VEST:  FEMALE. 


1912. 
Baltimore 

2 

3 

4 

10 
3 

47 
196 
38 
54 
83 

56.9 
54.0 
53.2 
56.0 
64.6 

$0. 1193 
.2493 
.  1319 
.1941 
.1901 

4 

1 
1 

6 
1 

2 

1 
3 

11 

4 
7 

11 
14 

4 
3 
7 

5 
9 

11 
3 

10 

3 

14 

2 

6 

15 

3 
13 

1 
15 
15 

1 
53 

Chk»go 

32 

83 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

*  •  •  • 

1 

1 

19 
17 

6 
9 

Rochester 

2 

4 

4 

Total 

33 

40T 

54.6 

.2068 

4 

3 

8 

8 

26 

39 

38 

40 

47 

90 

47 

57 

198 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


Table  42. — Average  and  Clas8ipied  Rates  of  Wages  Per  Hour  in  Men*s  Cloth- 
ing Manufacturing  in  Each  Year,  by  Cities,  1912  and  1913— Continued. 

OPERATORS,  VEST:  FEMALE-Continued. 


Num- 
ber of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Num- 
ber of 
em- 
ploy- 
ees. 

Avw- 

fSl- 
time 
hours 

week. 

Aver- 
age 
rate 
of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

^!l^^ 

Number  of  employees  earning  each  olatsified  rate  of  wages 

per  hour. 

Year  and  city. 

Un- 
der 
7 
cts. 

7 
and 
un- 
der 

8 
ots. 

8 
and 
un- 
der 

9 
cts. 

9 

and 
un- 
der 
10 
cts. 

10 
and 
un- 
der 

12 
cts. 

13 

and 
un- 
der 
14 
cts. 

14 
and 
un- 
der 

16 
cts. 

10 
and 
un- 
der 

18 
ots. 

18 
and 
un- 
der 

30 
ots. 

30 
and 
un- 
der 

25 
cts. 

25 
and 
un- 
der 

30 
cts. 

30 

Cts. 

and 

over. 

1913. 
Baltimore 

2 
3 

4 

10 

3 

51 
204 
28 
39 
75 

54.4 
52.0 
49.9 
53.8 
52.0 

10.1381 
.2723 
.1526 
.2322 
.2394 

1 

1 
1 

7 
2 

8 
7 
2 
2 

15 
5 
4 

6 

7 

10 

4 

8 

5 

3 

13 

4 

17 
3 
5 

8 

5 
43 

4 

15 
25 

Chicago 

48 

66 

Cincinn.iti 

New  York 

14 
11 

Rochester 

1 

3 

16 

Total 

22 

397 

52.3 

.2364 

— 

1 

2 

9 

19 

25 

25 

32 

37 

92 

73 

83 

OPERATORS,  ALL:  FEMALE.  • 


1912. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 
3 
6 
19 
32 
8 
6 

277 
23 
1.083 
230 
192 
112 
245 

56.7 
54.0 
54.0 
53.3 
56.3 
54.1 
54.6 

fa  1307 
.1567 

.2i:« 

.1559 
.1814 
.1534 
.1875 

16 

13 

27 

16 
1 

43 

11 
5 
6 

10 

57 
3 
52 
27 
15 
14 
19 

45 
7 
91 
49 
15 
20 
29 

31 
7 
91 
44 
19 
16 
29 

29 

21 

19 
3 
272 
29 
52 
15 
58 

3 

1 
161 

4 
14 

2 
27 

. 

Chicago 

2 
2 
4 
1 

2 

3 
2 
5 

11 
3 
4 
2 

1 

104 
32 
25 
14 
35 

102 
23 
31 
16 
26 

153 

Ohicinn^iti 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

3 

6 

1 

11 

Total 

76 

2,162 

64.5 

.1873 

25 

25 

48 

92 

187 

256 

237 

239 

219 

448 

212 

174 

1913. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 
3 
6 
19 
32 
8 
5 

318 
18 
1,163 
235 
194 
149 
241 

53.6 
50.0 
52.0 
50.5 
52.9 
53.6 
52.0 

.1472 
.1645 
.2313 
.1836 
.2086 
.1616 
.2164 

2 

3 

3 

21 

47 

118 
2 
54 
25 
17 
23 
10 

37 
4 
102 
40 
20 
22 
25 

22 
5 
132 
37 
16 
12 
31 

22 

5 

103 

37 

20 
9 

30 

33 
2 
269 
51 
49 
25 
61 

9 

1 

Chicago 

3 
3 

14 
4 
5 
4 
2 

39 
9 
13 
24 
12 

215 
15 
38 
11 
37 

232 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

1 

2 

11 
16 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 



8 

6 
1 

5 
32 

Total 

78 

2.318 

52.2 

.2065 

3 

13 

16 

50 

144 

249 

250 

255 

226 

490 

325 

297 

RASTERS,  COAT:  MALE. 


Number  of  employees  earning  each  classified  rate  of  wages 

Num- 
ber of 

estab- 
lish- 

Num- 
bwof 
em- 
ploy- 

Aver- 

Aver- 

per hour. 

Year  and  city. 

age 
full- 
time 
hours 

age 
rate  of 
wages 

Un- 

8 
and 

9 
and 

10 
and 

12 
and 

14 

and 

16 
and 

18 
and 

20 
and 

25 
and 

30 
and 

40 

ments. 

per 

der 

un- 

un- 

un- 

un- 

un- 

un- 

un- 

un- 

un- 

un- 

cts. 

ees. 

week. 

hour. 

8 

der 

der 

der 

der 

der 

der 

der 

der 

der 

der 

and 

Cts. 

9 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

25 

30 

40 

over. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

1912. 

Baltimore. 

3 

195 

58.8 

10.1862 

4 

3 

2 

11 

17 

31 

22 

23 

49 

28 

5 

Boston 

i 

42 
301 

53.4 
54.0 

.233A 
.2490 

1 

6 

5 
24 

7 
23 

4 

16 

11 

63 

5 
81 

74 

1 

Chicago 

2 

4 

5 

3 

Cincinnati 

6 
26 

7 
598 

53.8 
56.3 

.2993 
.2113 

2 

166 

2 

77 

2 
69 

1 

New  York 

1 

5 

3 

36 

41 

48 

75 

74 

3 

Philadelphia.... 

7 

180 

51.3 

.1822 

3 

3 

7 

12 

18 

14 

30 

28 

42 

19 

4 

RochestM* 

3 

86 

54,5 

.2413 

3 

3 

4 

3 

10 

28 

19 

16 

Total 

54 

1,409 

55.7 

.2151 

10 

15 

12 

67 

Sdl 

126 

160 

155 

361 

231 

17» 

8 

Hi 


WOKKING  CONDITIONS. 


199 


/^ 


•This  group  is  a  oomblnatioa  of  the  preceding  female  coat,  pants,  and  vest  operators. 


>^ 


-4^ 


Table  42. — ^Average  and  Classified  Rates  of  Wages  Per  Hour  in  Men's  Cloth- 
ing Manufacturing  in  Each  Year,  by  Cities,  1912  and  1913 — Continued. 

BASTER8.  COAT:  MALE— Continued. 


Num- 
ber of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Num- 
ber of 
em- 
ploy- 

668* 

Aver- 
age 
full- 
time 
hours 

week. 

Aver- 
age 

rate  of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

Number  of  employees  earning  each  classified  rate  of  wages 

per  hour. 

Year  and  city. 

Un- 

der 

8 

cts. 

8 

and 
un- 
der 

9 
cts. 

9 

and 
un- 
der 

10 
cts. 

10 
and 

un- 
der 

12 
cts. 

8 

12 
and 

un- 
der 

14 
cts. 

20 

14 

and 
un- 
der 
16 
cts. 

16 
and 
un- 
der 

18 
cts. 

18 
and 
un- 
der 

20 
cts. 

19 

'"i2 
4 

35 
31 
11 

20 
and 
un- 
der 

25 
cts. 

25 

and 
un- 
der 
30 
cts. 

30 

and 
un- 
der 
40 
cts. 

40 
Cts. 
and 
over. 

1913. 

Baltimore 

Boston. 

3 
4 
5 
6 
26 
7 
3 

217 
38 
266 
18 
573 
254 
106 

53.8 
50.0 
52.0 
50.6 
52.1 
53.5 
52.0 

to.  2188 
.2800 
.3031 
.2245 
.2614 
.2109 
.2618 

3 

2 

3 

20 

21 
1 
6 

1 
42 
27 

9 

54 
14 
43 
5 
142 
75 
18 

37 
11 
62 
4 
134 
41 
31 

26 
10 
95 
2 
137 
18 
29 

4 
3 

Chicago 

2 

2 

6 

8 

2 

22 

30 

3 

30 

Cinclnn<iti 

New  York 

3 

1 

6 

11 

3 

17 
17 

35 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

1 

3 
3 

Total 

54 

1,472 

52.5 

.2540 

3 

3 

9 

30 

60 

85 

107 

112 

351 

320 

317 

75 

HAND  SEWERS,  COAT:  MALE. 


1913. 

Baltimore 

Chicago 

3 
5 
19 
5 
3 

69 

36 

152 

13 

35 

58.4 
54.0 
56.3 
54.3 
54.6 

$0.1987 
.2516 
.2086 
.2061 
.2141 

1 

•  •  ■  • 

6 

3 

1 

13 

1 
1 

7 
""i5 
""2 

12 

3 

16 

1 
6 

4 

5 
12 

1 
7 

19 

10 

49 

5 

8 

14 

7 

25 

2 

6 

3 
8 
10 
1 
2 

2 

NewYork 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

1 

•  •  >  • 

1 

1 

9 

1 
2 

1 

Total 

35 

305 

56.2 

.2120 

1 

3 

1 
1 

18 

19 

24 

38 

29 

91 

54 

24 

4 

1913. 
Baltimore 

3 
5 
19 
5 
3 

4 

56 

58 

7 

20 

54.0 
52.0 
52.2 
54.0 
52.0 

.1046 
.2472 
.2721 
.1255 
.3127 

1 

1 

1 
1 
1 

Chicago 

6 

1 
2 

1 

4 
5 

1 
1 

9 
3 

14 
10 

4 
6 

16 
22 

2 

NewYork 

2 
2 

3 
1 

5 

Philadelphia.... 

Rochester 

2 

2 

5 

5 

4 

Total 

35 

145 

52.2 

.2564 



1 

5 

5 

4 

10 

11 

14 

26 

15 

43 

11 

OPERATORS,  COAT:  MALE. 


1912. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 

4 
5 
5 
26 
7 
3 

289 
90 

160 
16 

614 

139 
56 

59.2 
53.2 
54.0 
53.8 
56.5 
54.4 
54.6 

to.  1996 
.3065 
.3125 
.2078 
.2721 
.2512 
.2863 

8 

5 

3 

17 

17 

1 

"i 
9 
5 

1 

28 

••••7 

4 

15 
5 

22 
2 
3 
3 

33 
6 
1 

18 
2 
4 
2 

27 
7 
4 

97 
19 
24 

1 

154 

40 

9 

62 
26 
35 
4 
156 
45 
15 

12 
28 
53 
1 
165 
23 
22 

"12 

Chicago 



1 

•  •  •  • 

3 

31 

Cincinnati 

NewYork 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

3 

1 

3 
.... 

2 

1 

9 
2 

38 

4 
3 

Total 

53 

1,364 

56.2 

.2615 

12 

10 

6 

30 

34 

59 

70 

64 

344 

343 

304 

88 

1913. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 
4 

5 

5 

26 

7 
3 

436 
53 

225 
20 

647 

186 
86 

53.9 
50.0 
52.0 
50.9 
51.7 
53.6 
52.0 

.2176 
.3929 
.3433 
.2918 
.3228 
.2678 
.3467 

4 

2 

10 

25 

46 

29 

41 

29 

90 
3 

20 
3 

93 

36 
7 

104 

3 

33 

5 

88 
49 
16 

53 
28 
71 
9 
242 
45 
28 

3 
19 

Chicago 

4 

6 

6 

S 
1 

16 

11 

3 

5 

1 

17 
9 

72 

Cincinnati 

1 

NewYork 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

1 
1 

7 

1 

8 
4 
1 

6 
9 
2 

12 
6 
1 

157 
15 
28 

Total 

53 

1,653 

53.5 

.2948 

4 

4 

18 

42 

69 

54 

80 

61 

252 

298 

47^ 

295 

\ 


200 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE    CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


I 


i 


Table  42. — Average  and  Classified  Rates  of  Wages  Per  Hour  in  Men's  Cloth- 
ing Manufacturing  in  Each  Year,  by  Cities,  1912  and  1913 — Continued. 


OPERATORS,  PANTS:  MALE. 

Num- 
ber of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Num- 
ber of 
em- 
ploy- 

Aver- 

^- 

time 

hours 

week 

Aver- 
age 

rate  of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

Number  of  employees  earning  each  classified  rate  of  wages 

per  hour. 

Year  and  city 

Un- 
der 
8 
cts. 

2 

8 
and 
un- 
der 

9 
cts. 

3 

9 

and 
un- 
der 
10 
cts. 

2 

10 

and 
un*^ 
der 
12 
cts. 

12 
and 
un- 
der 

14 
cts. 

14 
and 
un- 
der 

16 
cts. 

16 

and 
un- 
der 
18 
cts. 

18 
and 
un- 
der 

20 
cts. 

20 

and 
un- 
der 
25 
cte. 

25 

and 
un- 
der 
30 
cts. 

30 

and 
un- 
der 
40 
cts. 

12 

12 

31 

108 

7 

1 

40 

cts. 

and 

over. 

1912. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 
3 
5 
21 
5 
3 

167 

41 

137 

468 

69 

8 

58.4 
54.0 
54.0 
57.0 
54.9 
54.4 

10.2081 
.3064 
.2709 
.2578 
.2135 
.2757 

8 

13 

11 

14 

23 
4 

7 
29 

4 

47 

9 

32 

109 

20 

29 
10 
41 
147 
14 
T 

3 

6 

Chicago 

3 

10 

3 

2 

15 

0 

6 
12 

1 

5 

20 

6 

10 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 

2 
3 

1 

3 

1 
1 

14 

1 

Total 

40 

890 

56.5 

.2495 

7 

7 

4 

24 

36 

30 

45 

67 

217 

248 

171 

34 

1913. 
Bftltimnre 

3 
3 
5 
21 
5 
3 

39 

32 

115 

440 

72 

6 

53.4 
50.0 
52.0 
52.3 
53.3 
52.0 

.2718 
.3666 
.3341 
.3369 
.2528 
.3024 

2 

1 

2 

12 

3 

1 

4 

10 

3 

14 

46 

6 

9 

2 

22 

2 

10 
14 
41 
138 
14 
4 

3 

Bostdn 

12 

Chicacro 

1 

12 
6 

2 

9 

6 

3 
7 

30 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

5 
2 

1 

1 

"2 

6 

4 

131 
10 

. 

Total 

40 

704 

52.3 

.3253 

7 

2 

2 

10 

19 

20 

18 

96 

79 

114 

221 

180 

OPERATORS,  VEST:  MALE. 


1912. 
Baltimore 

2 

3 

15 

5 

54 

76 
68 
28 

59.5 
54.0 
56.6 
55.2 

SO.  1925 
.3766 
.3067 
.3157 

5 

1 

•  •  •  • 

7 
1 

3 

3 

•  •  •  >  • 

2 
3 

3 
1 
1 

18 
5 
8 
3 

10 
13 
14 

8 

5 
26 
27 
17 

""» 

Naw  York 

1 

1 

3 

11 

Philadelphia.... 

' 

Total 

25 

226 

56.3 

.3041 

6 

1 



8 

3 

6 

4 

6 

1 
..... 

34 

45 

76 

30 

1913. 

Baltimore 

Chicafiro 

2 

3 

15 

5 

46 
75 
73 
30 

54.0 
52.0 
92.4 
53.5 

.2420 
.4286 
.3641 
.3795 

1 

.... 

3 

1 

3 
1 

4 
1 
1 

8 
3 

7 

14 
6 
8 

10 
19 
34 
16 

1 
45 

Naw  York 

23 

Philadelphia.... 

1 

12 

Total 

25 

224 

52.8 

.3627 

1 



3 

3 

4 

6 

2 

18 

28 

79 

81 

OPERATORS,  ALL 

:  MALE 

." 

1912. 

Baltimore 

Boston      .  ..... 

8 

4 
6 
5 
51 
14 
4 

510 

131 

373 

16 

1,150 

236 

64 

50.0 
53.5 
54.0 
53.8 
56.7 
54.7 
54.6 

$0.2017 
.3065 
.3103 
.2078 
2683 
.2479 
.2849 

15 

9 

5 

32 

33 

1 
2 
1 
25 
11 
1 

43 

"is 

4 

30 
6 

•  •  •  •  • 

36 
2 

10 
3 

65 

12 
1 

44 

6 
12 

2 
57 
11 

4 

162 

28 

61 

1 

371 

63 

9 

101 
36 
80 

4 

317 

67 

22 

29 

40 

110 

1 

300 

47 

23 

3 
18 

f^hfcwfo ,   ...  - 



1 

•  •  •  • 

6 

60 

CincinnAti 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 

RiM^liivitAr 

6 
4 

•  •  •  • 

4 
3 

1 

3 
2 

19 
5 

63 
6 
8 

, 

Total 

87 

2,480 

56.3 

.2610 

25 

18 

10 

63 

73 

96 

119 

136 

605 

636 

550 

161 

1913. 

Baltimra-e 

DfMtnn 

3 
4 
6 
5 
51 
14 
4 

521 
85 

415 

20 

1,160 

288 
92 

53.9 
50.0 
52.0 
50.9 
52.0 
53.5 
52.0 

.2238 
.3830 
.3561 
.2918 
.3306 
.2757 
.3438 

5 

2 

13 

26 

49 

31 
1 

8 

46 

34 

108 

6 

37 

3 

146 

42 

7 

127 

5 

61 

5 

164 

60 

18 

73 
42 

131 
9 

414 
75 
32 

7 
31 

Cbicaso        . 

4 

8 

11 

1 

26 
17 

3 

8 

1 

29 

17 

147 

PfrwiTinAtl 

1 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 

5 
2 

'  2 
2 

7 
3 

14 
9 

1 

18 

15 

3 

"5 

1 

311 
37 
28 

Total 

87 

2,581 

52.5 

.3090 

12 

6 

23 

54 

92 

74 

104 

89 

349 

440 

776 

563 

•  This  eroap  is  a  oombinatlon  of  the  preceding  male  coat,  pants,  and  vest  operators. 


K^, 


WORKING   CONDITIONS. 


201 


/ 


r 


i 


i 


f 


■< 


Table  42. — Averags  and  Classified  Rates  of  Wages  Per  Hour  in  Men's  Cloth- 
ing Manufacturing  in  Each  Year,  by  Cities,  1912  and  1913 — Continued. 

PRESSERS,  COAT:  MALE. 


Num- 
ber of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Num- 
ber of 
em- 
ploy- 
ees. 

Aver- 
age 
full- 
time 
hours 

week. 

Aver- 
age 

rate  of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

Number  of  employees  earning  each  c 

per  hour. 

lassified  rate  of  wages 

Year  and  city. 

Un- 
der 
8 
cts. 

8 
and 
un- 
der 

9 
cts. 

9 

and 
un- 
der 
10 
cts. 

10 

and 
un- 
der 
12 
cts. 

12 
and 
un- 
der 

14 
cts. 

14 
and 
un- 
der 

16 
cts. 

16 
and 
un- 
der 

18 
cts. 

18 
and 
un- 
der 

20 
cts. 

20 
and. 
un- 
der 

25 
cts. 

25 
and 
un- 
der 

30 
cts. 

30 
and 
un- 
der 

40 
cts. 

40 

Cts. 

and 

over. 

1013. 

Baltimore 

Boston 

3 
4 

5 
9 
26 
7 
3 

255 
37 
596 
96 
716 
155 
172 

57.9 
53.5 
54.0 
53.7 
56.4 
54.3 
54.7 

10.2077 
.2971 
.2712 
.2411 
.2371 
2194 
2459 

2 

2 

*  ■  >  • 

20 

20 

33 
1 

17 
4 

41 

15 

17 
3 

31 
5 

43 

20 
7 

20 
2 
35 
2 
56 
15 
18 

64 
10 

138 
33 

212 
46 
46 

55 

1 

174 

40 
194 

25 

85 

30 

14 

181 

8 

108 

20 

9 

2 

6 

Chicago 

3 
2 
16 
1 
2 

4 

1 
30 
13 

2 

13 

Cincinnati ...... 

1 
4 

New  York 

Philadelphia . . . 

4 

8 

Rochester 

3 

Total 

67 

2,027 

65.4 

.2441 

2 

6 

8 

44 

70 

111 

126 

148 

549 

674 

360 

29 

no. 

Baltimore 

3 
4 

6 
9 
26 
7 
3 

309 
48 
636 
91 
768 
247 
186 

53.6 
50.0 
52.0 
50.9 
52.1 
53.6 
52.0 

.2415 
.3207 
.3209 
.2713 
.2987 
.2297 
.2842 

1 

0 

17 

22 

33 

1 
13 

3 
19 
24 

4 

31 
2 

30 
2 

29 

39 
9 

51 
5 
93 
24 
104 
72 
21 

77 
17 

115 
13 

172 
39 
60 

61 
11 

252 
40 

355 
31 
78 

8 

Boston 

12 

Chicago 

11 

4 
7 

19 
6 

\n 

Cincinnati 

2 
1 

4 
1 

1 

11 
9 

•   •   a>   • 

2 

New  York 

4 

2 

56 

Philadelphia.... 

8 

Rochester 

6 

Total 

57 

2,274 

52.3 

.2878 

7 

17 

38 

69 

96 

142 

370 

493 

828 

214 

PRESSERS,  PANTS:  MALE. 


1912. 
Baltimore 

3 
3 
6 
6 
22 
5 
3 

56 
21 

193 
30 

237 
45 
55 

57.4 
64.0 
54.0 
53.6 
56.8 
54.5 
54.6 

$0.2529 
.2922 

.2105 
2563 

.2316 
2686 

1 

8 

1 
1 
1 
2 

7 
3 
1 

5 

4 

14 

4 

29 
10 
66 
11 

8 

10 
7 
34 
9 
73 
12 
15 

3 

8 

94 

10 

Boston. ......... 

1 

Chicago 

1 
2 

4 

«  ■  •  • 

6 

1 

7 

1 

20 

5 

4 

5 

5 

16 

6 

7 

18 

Cincinnati 

1 

New  York 

37 

4 
19 

13 

PhUadelphia.... 
Rochester 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Total 

47 

637 

65.4 

.2706 

2 

6 

18 

16 

42 

43 

142 

160 

165 

44 

1913. 
Baltimore 

3 
3 
6 
6 
22 
6 
3 

29 
18 

207 
32 

193 
46 
61 

63.3 
50.0 
52.0 
50.7 
52.5 
53.3 
52.0 

.2294 
.3909 
.3430 
.2350 
.3139 
.2651 
.2773 

1 

3 

5 

5 

3 

2 
23 

8 
28 

8 
18 

7 

4 
18 

9 
40 

9 
20 

6 
6 
89 
5 
61 
17 
18 

Boston 

7 

Chicago 

4 

1 
2 

1 

1 
3 
3 
4 

1 

8 

1 
9 
3 

1 

4 

3 

14 

3 

1 

60 

Cincinnati 

1 

1 

New  York 

36 

Philadelphia.... 

1 

Rochester 

3 

Total 

47 

586 

52.2 

.3104 

1 

1 

9 

14 

27 

30 

90 

107 

201 

106 

PRESSERS,  VEST:  MALE. 


ma. 

Baltimore 

2 
3 
2 
16 
6 
3 

25 
129 
5 
70 
13 
82 

58.0 
54.0 
54.0 
56.3 
55.2 
64.4 

10.20(13 
3038 
.2566 
.2513 
.3240 
.2514 

2 

4 
2 

2 

5 

3 
1 

4 
3 

1 
2 

1 
1 

7 
18 

1 
17 

2 
12 

1 
24 

2 
26 

3 

3 

1 
66 

1 
14 

5 
11 

1 

Chicago 

10 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

1 

2 

4 

4 

PhUadelphia.... 

2 

RochestM* 

1 

4 

. 

Total 

31 

274 

55.1 

.2749 

1 

3 

8 

15 

8 

12 

57 

59 

98 

13 

202 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


Table  42. — Average  and  Classified  Rates  op  Wages  Per  Hour  in  Men's  Cloth- 
ing Manufacturing  in  Each  Year,  by  Cities,  1912  and  1913 — Continued. 

PRESSERS,  VEST:  MALE— Continued. 


it 


Num- 
ber of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Num- 
ber of 
em- 
ploy- 
ees. 

Aver- 

rX 

time 

hours 

per 

week. 

Aver- 
age 

rate  of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

Number  of  onployees  earning  each  classifled  rate  of  wages 

per  hour. 

Y«ar  and  city. 

Un- 
der 
8 
cts. 

8 
and 
un- 
der 

9 
cts. 

9 
and 
un- 
der 

10 
cts. 

10 
and 
un- 
der 

12 
cts. 

12 
and 
un- 
der 

14 
cts. 

14 

and 
im- 
der 
16 
cts. 

16 
and 
un- 
der 

18 
Cts. 

18 
and 
un- 
der 

20 
cts. 

20 

and 
un- 
der 
25 
cts. 

25 
and 
ixn- 
der 

30 
cts. 

30 

and 
un- 
der 
40 
cts. 

40 

cts. 

and 

over. 

1913. 
Baltimore 

2 
3 
2 
16 
5 
3 

23 
113 

5 
58 

54.2 
52.0 
50.0 
■;9  Q 

$0.2695 
.3823 
.2698 
.3164 
.3119 
.2846 

1 

2 

2 

1 

""3 
1 
2 

1 
2 

1 
3 

"i 

2 
5 
1 

10 
3 

10 

6 
20 

1 
15 

1 
8 

5 
37 

2 
16 

9 

8 

1 

44 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

1 

12 

16'    53.5 
36;    52.0 

3 

1 

4 

Totnl 

31 

251 

52.5 

.3360 

1 

2 

5 

9 

g 

31 

51 

77 

65 

PRESSERS,  ALL: 

MALE  .a 

1912. 
Baltimore 

3 
4 

6 
17 
53 
14 

5 

336 
58 
918 
131 
1,023 
213 
259 

57.8 
53.7 
54.0 
53.7 
56.5 
54.4 
54.6 

to. 2147 
.2953 
.2839 
.2347 
.2425 
.2283 
.2514 

2 

3 

•  •  •  • 

23 

32 

36 
3 

23 
6 

52 

18 
5 

25 
3 
39 
6 
67 
25 
11 

28 
2 
43 
8 
74 
22 
26 

85 
14 

185 
44 

295 
59 
66 

66 

8 

232 

51 
293 

40 
108 

24 
22 

341 
19 

159 
29 
39 

13 
7 

r^hi/Hurn 

4 
4 

17 
2 
2 

10 
1 

37 

14 

2 

41 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

2 
4 

1 
4 

4 

21 
3 

1 

Total 

102 

2,938 

55.4 

.2527 

2 

6 

11 

52 

96 

142 

176 

208 

748 

793 

623 

86 

ins. 

Baltimore 

Rout  on 

3 

4 
6 

17 
.     53 

14 
5 

361 
66 
956 
128 
1,009 
309 
283 

53.5 
50.0 
52.0 
50.8 
52.2 
53.6 
52.0 

.2423 
.3399 
.3329 
.2622 
.3026 
.2392 
.2828 

3 

10 

30 

36 

37 
1 

24 
5 

30 

28 
7 

37 
2 
37 
5 
45 
42 
13 

56 

7 

121 

33 
142 

83 

49 

90 

21 

153 

23 

227 
49 
88 

72 

16 
378 

47 
432 

57 
104 

U 

10 

PhU>5wrk 

4 

3 

13 

10 

13 

7 
11 
23 

8 

220 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

Philadelphia — 
Rochester 

1 
4 
3 

3 
1 

4 
1 

2 

104 

11 

13 

Total 

102 

3,111 

52.3 

.2950 

9 

19 

49 

88 

132 

181 

491 

651 

1,106 

385 

BUSHELERS  AND  TAILORS:  MALB. 


Num- 
ber of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Num- 

berof 

em- 

ptoy- 

66S* 

Aver- 
age 
full- 
time 
hours 

week. 

Aver- 
age 

rate  of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

Emptoyees  earning  each  classifled  rate  of  wages  per  hour. 

Year  and  city. 

10 
and 
un- 
der 

12 
cts. 

3 

1 
1 
3 

•  •  •  • 

13 
and 

un- 
der 

14 
Cts. 

14 

and 
un- 
der 
16 
cts. 

16 
and 
un- 
der 

18 
cts. 

18 

and 
un- 
der 
20 
cts. 

20 
and 
un- 
der 
25 
cts. 

25 
and 
un- 
der 

30 
cts. 

30 

and 
un- 
der 
40 
cts. 

40 
and 
un- 
der 
50 
cts. 

50 
and 
un- 
der 

60 
cts. 

60 
and 
un- 
der 
70 
cts. 

70 

cts. 

and 

over. 

1912. 

3 

5 
8 
32 
7 
3 

61 
136 

33 
271 

70 

13 

57.3 
52.9 
53.7 
55.1 
56.1 
54.5 

10.2066 
.2562 
.3252 
.2513 
.2150 
.2878 

3 

•  •  ■  • 

•  •  •  • 

7 
3 

3 
3 

1 
9 
1 

7 
2 
5 
19 
3 

10 
10 

1 
18 

7 

15 
42 
14 

78 

46 

2 

T 

55 

10 

70 

9 

6 

3 
23 

1 
67 

2 

5 

Baltimore 

Chicago 

Cincinnati 

..... 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 

Rochester 

>  •  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

.... 

Total 

58 

574 

54.8 

.2434 

7 

12 

17 

36 

46 

197 

157 

101 

1 

«=■ 

(    ' 


V. 


WORKING   CONDITIONS. 


203 


>• 


k. 


.1*  \V 


•  This  group  is  a  combination  of  the  preceding  male  coat,  pants,  and  vest  presaers. 


V 


Table  42. — Average  and  Classified  Rates  of  Wages  Per  Hour  in  Men's  Cloth- 
ing Manufacturing  in  Each  Year,  by  Citibs,  1912  and  1913 — Continued. 

BUSHELERS  AND  TAILORS:  MALB— Continued. 


Num- 
ber of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Num- 
ber of 
em- 
ploy- 
ees. 

Aver- 
age 
fi3l- 
time 

hours 
per 

week. 

Aver- 
age 

rate  of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

Employees  earning  each  classified  rate  of  wages  per  hoar. 

Year  and  city. 

10 
and 
un- 
der 

12 
cts. 

12 
and 
un- 
der 

14 
cts. 

14 
and 
un- 
der 
16 
cts. 

16 
and 
un- 
der 

18 
cts. 

18 
and 
un- 
der 

20 
cts. 

20 
and 
un- 
der 

25 
cts. 

25 
and 
un- 
der 

30 
cts. 

30 
and 
un- 
der 

40 
cts. 

40 
and 
un- 
der 

50 
cts. 

50 
and 
un- 
der 

60 
cts. 

60 
and 
un- 
der 

70 
cts. 

70 

cts. 

and 

over. 

1913. 
Baltimore       ... 

3 
5 

3l 
7 
3 

73 
144 

28 

315 

74 

10 

53.5 
51.4 
51.5 
51.9 
55.4 
52.0 

to. 2532 
.2744 
.2712 
.2774 
.2258 
.3058 

.... 

1 
11 

6 
.... 

10 

6 
7 

•  •  •  • 

13 

8 

31 

22 

3 

74 

48 

10 
79 
14 
89 
11 
6 

19 

33 

9 

101 

6 

4 

Chicaeo      ...... 

2 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

Philadelphia 

Rochester 



10 

4 

1 

Total 

58 

644|    52.4 

.2683 

1 

3 

13 

17 

34 

178 

209 

172 

12 

4 

1 

CUTTERS,  CLOTH,  HAND:  MALE. 


1912. 
Baltimore 

3 

4 
5 
7 

23 
5 
3 

113 
53 
551 
131 
615 
136 
266 

52. 4  to.  3362 

3 

17 

83 
2 

164 
37 
83 
81 

164 

10 
18 

194 
74 

461 
37 
15 

Boston 

48.9,     .5751 
48.0     .4267 
50.2     .3941 

13 

112 

7 

57 
2 

11 
18 

9 

Chicago      

59 

6 

11 

12 

48 

4 

Cincinnati 

3 

4 
2 

New  York     .... 

48.4 
52.0 
54.0 

.4357 
.3831 
.3242 

1 
3 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

1 

6 

5 

28 

Total 

50 

1,865 

49.7 

.4063 

6 

8 

37 

153 

614 

809 

191 

33 

14 

19U. 
Baltimore. ...... 

3 

4 
5 
7 
23 
5 
3 

114 
55 
536 
149 
5.35 
127 
227 

49.2 
45.1 
48.0 
49.4 
48.3 
50.4 
52.0 

.3739 
.5576 
.4573 
.4231 
.4505 
.4196 
.3668 

90 
4 

132 
29 
49 
73 

150 

21 

16 

213 

113 

388 

43 

51 

3 

13 

155 

3 

96 

6 

1 

Boston .    ....... 

2 
7 

4 
1 

12 
25 

g 

ChicaRo 

4 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

1 
2 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

3 

10 

15 

Total 

50 

1,743 

48.9 

.4355 

10 

29 

527 

845 

277 

40 

15 

CUTTERS,  CLOTH,  MACHINE:  MALE. 


1912. 
Baltimore 

3 
5 
7 
22 
3 
2 

16 
44 

15 

62 

7 

3 

53.5 
48.0 
50.8 
50.9 
54.0 
54.0 

to.  2925 
.5234 
.4150 
.4233 
.4100 
.3766 

3 

1 

2 

3 

4 
2 
4 
18 
1 
3 

4 
12 
11 
17 

5 

Chicago 

25 

5 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

2 

4 
1 

21 

Philadelphia... - 
Rochester 

Total 

42 

147 

50.5 

.4366 

2 

1 

2 

2 

8 

32 

49 

46 

5 

1913. 
Baltimore 

3 
5 
7 
22 
3 

2 

24 
43 
19 
62 
12 
6 

49.7 
48.0 
50.1 
49.0 
52.9 
52.0 

.3591 
.5507 
.4181 
.4488 
.3900 
.3590 

2 

1 

15 
1 
6 
5 
3 
4 

6 

9 

12 

27 
6 

1 

Chicago 

23 

1 
30 

8 

2 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

Philadelphia.... 

1 

1 
1 

1 

Rochester 

*      * 

Total 

42 

166 

49.3 

.4512 

3 

3 

34 

61 

54 

9 

2 

204 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


Table  42. — Average  and  Classified  Rates  op  Wages  Per  Hour  in  Men's  Cloth- 
ing Manufacturing  in  Each  Year,  by  Cities,  1912  and  1913— Cpntinued. 

EXAMINERS,  SHOP  AND  STOCK  ROOM:  MALE. 


Num- 
ber of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Nimi- 
berof 
em- 
ploy- 
ees. 

Aver- 

f^- 

time 

hours 

per 
week. 

Aver- 
age 

rate  of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

Employees  earning  each  classified  rate  of  wages  per  hoar. 

Year  and  city. 

K) 
and 
un- 
der 
12 
cts. 

12 
and 
im- 
der 

14 
cts. 

14 

and 
un- 
der 
16 
cts. 

16 

and 
un- 
der 
18 
cts. 

18 

and 
un- 
der 
20 
cts. 

20 
and 
un- 
der 

25 
cts. 

25 

16 

and 
un- 
der 
18 
cts. 

25 
1 

56 
8 

40 

20 
8 

25 

and 
un- 
der 
30 
cts. 

30 
and 
un- 
der 

40 
cts. 

40 
and 
un- 
der 

60 
cts. 

60 
and 
un- 
der 

70 
cts. 

70 

cts. 

and 

over. 

1912. 
Baltimore 

3 

4 
5 
7 
23 
5 
4 

58 
13 

113 
23 

132 
44 
20 

59.1 
49.6 
52.9 
51.4 
50.8 
54.2 
54.2 

90.2341 
.3621 
.3006 
.3230 
.3032 
.2567 
.3328 

1 

4 

1 

2 
10 
35 

8 

66 

7 

8 

Boston 

1 
2 
1 
3 

Chicago 

ft 

10 
3 
9 

15 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

1 

1 

2 

4 

2 
1 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

■ 

Total 

51 

403 

53.1 

.2920 

— 

2 

3 

8 

10 

62 

158 

136 

17 

7 

1913. 
Baltimore. ...... 

3 

4 
5 
7 

23 
5 
4 

82 
12 

128 
25 

111 
42 
18 

53.8 
50.3 
51.2 
50.5 
50.6 
53.9 
52.0 

.2619 
.3364 
.3114 
.3248 
.3040 
.2626 
.3449 

1 

•  ■  •  • 

2 

3 

23 

40 

12 
12 
52 
15 
60 
6 
13 

1 

Boston 

Chicago 

1 

6 
1 

13 

14 

2 

59 

7 
21 
21 

10 
2 
5 

Cincinnati .. 

New  York 

3 

3 

3 
1 

3 

Philadelphia.... 
Rochester 

3 

Total 

51 

418 

51.8 

.2978 

— 

3 

5 

8 

59 

148 

170 

21 

3 

r 


^ 

-r^^ 


FITTERS  OR  TRIMMERS,  COAT:  MALE. 


1912. 

Baltimore... 

Bostmi 

Chicago 

Cincinnati.., 
New  York . . 
Philadelphia 
Rochester. . . 

Total.. 

1913. 

Baltimwe... 

Boston 

Chicago 

Cincinnati.. 
New  York.. 
Philadelphia 
Rochester. . . 

Total.. 


3 

4 
5 
9 
18 
6 
3 


48 


t 

9 

18 

6 

3 


48 


30 
10 
52 
19 
45 
19 
19 


194 


25 
8 
46 
15 
41 
26 
19 


180 


57.8 
53.0 
54.0 
53.6 
56.2 
54.3 
54.5 


10.2410 
.2924 
.2959 
.2606 
.3314 
.2925 
.2853 


55.1 


.2915 


53.6 
50.0' 
52.0 
50. 7| 
51.6 
53.5 
52.0 


.2851 
.3729 
.3668 
.2822 
.3860 
.3122 
.3635 


52.1     .3450 


04 


04 


1 
2 


6 


6 

1 

10 

4 
6 
5 

4 


35 


16 


7 

2 

10 

13 

8 
7 
8 


64 


8 
1 
8 

11 
3 

11 
4 


46 


5 

4 
14 


17 
7 
6 


53 


4 
1 

21 
3 

10 
7 
6 


52 


17 


2 

4 
12 


23 
3 

8 


52 


\- 


a  Including  1  whose  rate  was  9  and  under  10  oeiits. 

Cutting  and  nearly  all  pressing  are  done  by  men.  Hand  sewing,  which  includes 
felling,  finishing,  button  sewing,  buttonhole  making,  tacking,  and  other  fine  needle- 
work, is  done  mostly  by  females.  The  sexes  are  about  equally  divided  in  sewing- 
machine  operating  and  basting.  The  proportion  of  male  and  female  employees  varies 
materially  in  the  different  cities,  males  outnumbering  females  in  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia, Baltimore,  and  Boston,  and  females  outnumbering  males  in  Rochester,  Chi- 
cago, and  Cincinnati.    The  variation  is  greatest  in  New  York  and  least  in  Ilochester. 

The  full-time  hours  of  labor  per  week  shown  in  the  tables  of  the  report  are  the  regular 
full-time  hours  of  work  of  the  occupation  under  normal  conditions  in  the  establish- 
ment. The  working  time  is  the  hours  on  duty,  including  intervals  of  waiting  for  work. 
Tlie  full-time  hours  per  week  and  the  relatives  based  thereon  do  not  in  any  way  indi- 


-f 


WORKING   CONDITIONS. 


205 


cate  the  extent  of  unemploymcAt.  Employees  mav  work  overtime  or  broken  time, 
or  be  laid  off,  or  a  temporary  reduction  may  be  made  in  working  hours,  without  such 
change  affecting  the  regular  full-time  hours  per  week  as  presented  in  this  bulletin. 

The  rates  of  wages  per  hour  appearing  in  the  tables  include  the  wages  of  Ume  workers 
and  the  earnings  of  pieceworkers.  AU  time  rates  by  the  day  or  week  have  been  re- 
duced to  rates  per  hour  and  the  earnings  of  pieceworkers  or  persons  working  both  at 
time  and  piece  rates  have  been  reduced  to  rates  per  hour  by  dividing  the  eanmigs  in 
the  pay  period  by  the  hours  worked.  The  time  workers  and  pieceworkers  of  each 
occupation  are  combined  as  one  group.  Where  there  was  no  record  regularly  kept  by 
the  establishment  of  the  actual  time  worked  by  pieceworkers,  at  the  request  of  the 
agents  of  the  Bureau,  the  actual  time  worked  was  kept  for  the  pay  period  taken. 

The  proportion  of  time  workers  and  pieceworkers  varies  in  different  shops  and  m 
different  cities.  Cutting  is  usually  time  work.  In  the  shops  in  all  the  cities  con- 
sidered the  work  is  about  evenly  divided  between  time  work  and  piecework,  some 
cities  working  very  largely  on  time  work,  others  very  largely  on  piecework. 

A  change  in  the  earnings  per  hour  of  pieceworkers  does  not  of  necessity  indicate  a 
change  in  piece  rates.  Without  a  change  of  piece  rates,  a  change  in  methods  or  of 
machinery,  a  speeding  up,  or  more  steady  work  resulting  from  greater  volume  of 
business,  may  increase  the  hourly  earnings;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  changes  in 
methods,  slowing  down  of  speed,  or  a  lull  in  business,  may  reduce  the  hourly  earnings. 
Varying  intervals  of  waiting  for  work  while  on  duty  may  also  affect  hourly  earnings. 

The  full-time  weekly  earnings  presented  in  this  report  are  the  earnings  per  week 
of  employees  working  full  time  and  the  equivalent  earnings  for  a  full  week  of  employ- 
ees working  broken  time.  In  considering  changes  in  full-time  earnings  per  week, 
notice  should  also  be  taken  of  changes  in  full-time  hours  of  labor  per  week.  A  reduc- 
tion in  the  hours  of  a  pieceworker  may  reduce  his  earnings  in  a  week  and  leave  his 
earnings  per  hour  unchanged;  while  a  reduction  of  hours  for  a  week  worker  ¥nll,  if 
his  weekly  rate  remains  the  same,  increase  his  rate  per  hour.  ,  ,  „    . 

The  averages  of  full-time  hours  per  week,  rates  of  wages  per  hour,  and  full-time 
weekly  earnmgs  are  computed  by  adding  the  data  for  the  individual  employees  and 
dividing  the  total  by  the  number  of  employees. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  average  full-tipie  weekly  earmn^  generally  are  not 
exactly  the  same  as  the  result  that  would  be  obtained  by  multiplying  the  average 
rate  per  hour  by  the  average  hours  per  week,  owing  to  the  fact  that  hourly  rates  for 
individual  employees  are  based  on  varying  hours  per  week,  which  has  the  effect  of 
changing  the  relative  weighting  of  the  wages  of  the  several  employees. 

Table  43.— Averaob   Full-Timk   Hours  per  Week  and  Average   Full-Timb 
Weekly  Earnings,  in  Men's  Clothing  Manufacturing,  by  Cities,  1912  and 

1913. 

rasters,  COAT:  MALE. 


City. 


Baltimore — 

Boston 

Chicago , 

Cincinnati... 
New  York... 
Philadelphia. 
Rodiester — 


Total. 


Number 
of  estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


3 

4 
5 
6 
26 
7 
3 


1912 


Number 
of  em- 
ployees. 


54 


195 
42 

301 
7 

598 

180 
86 


Avwage 

full-time 

hours  per 

week. 


1,400 


58.8 
53.4 
54.0 
53.8 
5&3 
54.3 
546 


55.7 


Awage 

full-time 

weekly 

earnings. 


1913 


Numbw 
of  em- 
ployees. 


$10.89 
12.40 
13.45 
16.10 
11.89 
9.90 
13.15 


11.94 


217 
38 
266 
18 
573 
254 
106 


Average 

full-time 

hours  per 

week. 


1,472 


53.8 
50.0 
52.0 
50.6 
52.1 
53.5 
52.0 


52.5 


Averagv 

full-time 

weekly 

earnings. 


S11.75 
14.00 
15.77 
11.36 
13.60 
11. 2B 
13.61 


13.30 


BASTERS,  COAT:  FEMALE. 

naUimniti 

3 

4 
5 
7 
21 
7 
3 

218 
21 

342 
51 

104 
50 
53 

58.2 
54.0 
54.0 
53.8 
57.0 
54.4 
54.8 

$7.89 
6.87 

10.78 
8.17 
7.43 
7.61 

10.51 

243 
8 

333 
55 

100 
94 
91 

53.0 
50.0 
52.0 
50.9 
52.3 
53.9 
52.0 

$7.15 

Boston  

8.03 

C^\nkffi\      ........... 

11.72 

dndmiati 

9.09 

New  York 

8.14 

PhflndAlnbia 

8.84 

Rochester 

11.64 

Total 

50 

839 

5S.6 

9.16 

024 

52.4 

9.M 

206 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE    CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


Table  43.-^veraoe  Full-Time  Hours  Per  Week  and  Average  Full-Timb 
Weekly  Earnings,  in  Men's  Clothing  Manufacturing,  bt  Cities.  1912  and 
1913 — Continued. 

BASTERS,  PANTS:  FEMALE. 


Number 
of  estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

191S 

1913 

City. 

Number 
of  em- 
ployees. 

Average 

full-time 

hours  per 

week. 

Average 

full-time 

weekly 

earnings. 

Number 
of  em- 
ployees. 

Average 

full-time 

hours  per 

week. 

Average 
full-time 

weekly 
earnings. 

Baltimore 

2 

a 

s 
• 

4 

17 

5 

107 

40 

14 

55.0 
54.0 
54.0 
56.9 
54.3 

$6.42 

10.18 

10.15 

8.96 

5.56 

ft 

4 
50 
51 
17 

53.4 
50.0 
52.0 
53.1 
53.6 

Boston 

$8.73 

Chicapo 

10.68 

New  York 

8.84 

Philadelphia 

8.97 

7.31 

Total 

20 

183 

54.8 

9.20 

127 

52.7 

8.74 

BASTERS,  VEST:  FEMALE. 


Baltimore 

t 

8 

16 

5 

28 

118 

99 

29 

58.2 
54.0 
56l6 
54.6 

$6.35 

11.97 

9.07 

10.25 

24 
64 
90 
29 

54.3 
52.0 
53.1 

53.5 

Chicago 

$7.64 

New  York 

12.41 

Philadelphia 

10.27 

11.27 

Total 

26 

274 

55.4 

10.17 

• 

207 

52.9 

10.76 

BASTERS,  ALL:  FE.MALE.O 


Baltimore... 

Bostcm 

Chicago 

Cincinnati. . . 
New  York... 
Philadelph^ 
Rochester... 

Total.. 


3 

4 
• 
7 
37 
13 
3 


73 


263 
26 

567 
51 

343 
93 
53 


1,296 


58.0 
54.0 
54.0 
53.8 
56.8 
54.4 
54.8 


55.4 


$7.63 
7.50 

10.91 
8.17 
8.35 
8.07 

10.51 


9.37 


272 
12 

447 
55 

241 

140 
91 


1,258 


53.1 
50.0 
52.0 
50.9 
52.8 
53.8 
52.0 


52.5 


BUSHELERS  AND  TAILORS:  MALE. 


Baltimore... 

Chicago 

Cincinnati. . . 
New  York... 
Philadelphia 
Rochester . . . 

Total.. 


3 
5 

8 

32 

7 

3 


58 


51 
136 

33 
271 

70 

13 


574 


57.3 
52.9 
53.7 
55.1 
56.1 
54.5 


51.8 


$11.85 
13.51 
12.09 
13.78 
12.03 
15.69 


13.28 


73 
144 

28 
315 

74 

10 


644 


53.5 
51.4 
5L5 
51.9 
55.4 
53.0 


53.4 


CUTTERS,  CLOTH,  HAND:  MALE. 


Baltimore... 

Boston 

Chicago 

Cincinnati. . . 
New  York... 
Philadelphia 
Rochester... 

Total.. 


3 
4 

5 
7 
33 
5 
3 


50 


113 
53 
551 
131 
615 
136 
266 


1,865 


52.4 
48.9 
48.0 
50.2 
48.4 
53.0 
54.0 


49.7 


$17.  62 

2s.as 

20.48 
19.67 
21.04 
19.84 
17.51 


20.18 


114 
55 
536 
149 
535 
127 
227 


1,743 


49.3 
45.1 
48.0 
49.4 
48.3 
50.4 
52.0 


48.9 


•  This  group  is  a  combination  of  the  preceding  female  coat,  pants,  and  vest  hasten. 


$7.22 
8.91 

11.49 
9.00 
9.11 
9.16 

U.64 


9.73 


$13.58 
14.08 
U.95 
14.38 
13.46 
15.90 


14.01 


$18.40 
35.01 
31.95- 
20.86 
21.74 
21.06 
19.08 


31.23 


«  '• 


y 


k 


\' 


r 


'\ 


y 


WORKING    CONDITIONS. 


207 


Table  43.— Average  Full-Time  Hours  Per  Week  and  Average  Full-Time 
Weekly  Earnings,  in  Men's  Clothing  Manufacturing,  by  Cities,  1912  and 
1913— Continued. 

CUTTERS,  CLOTH,  MACHINE:  MALE. 


City. 


Baltimore. . . 

Chicago 

Cincitmati. . . 
New  York... 
Philadelphia 
Rochester... 

Total.. 


Number 
of  estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


1913 


3 
5 
7 

33 
3 
3 


43 


Number 
of  em- 
ployees. 


16 
44 
15 
62 
7 
3 


147 


Average 

full-time 

hours  per 

week. 


53.5 
48.0 
50.8 
50.9 
54.0 
54.0 


60.5 


Average 

full-time 

weekly 

earnings. 


$15.59 
25.12 
2L00 
21.31 
22.14 
20.33 


21.82 


1913 


Number 
of  em- 
ployees. 


24 
43 
19 
62 
12 
6 


166 


Average 

full-time 

hours  per 

week. 


EXAMINERS,  SHOP  AND  STOCK  ROOM:  MALE. 


FITTERS  OR  TRIMMERS,  COAT:  MALE. 


HAND  SEWERS,  COAT:  MALE. 


HAND  SEWERS,  COAT:  FEMALE. 


49.7 
48.0 
50.1 
49.0 
52.9 
52.0 


49.3 


Average 

full-time 

weekly 

earnings. 


$17. 82 
26.43 
20.90 
21.99 
20.54 
18.67 


22.19 


Baltimore 

3 
4 
5 
7 

33 
5 
4 

58 
13 

113 
33 

133 
44 
20 

50.1 
49.6 
52.9 
51.4 
50.8 
54.2 
54.2 

$13.81 
17.90 
15.86 
16.54 
15.31 
13.91 
18.02 

82 
12 

128 
25 

111 
42 
18 

53.8 
50.3 
51.2 
50.5 
50.6 
53.9 
52.0 

$14.09 

Boston 

16.92 

Chicaco 

15.94 

Cincinnati 

16.38 

New  Mexico 

15.32 

Philadelphia 

14.17 

Rochester 

17.93 

Total 

51 

403 

53.1 

15.39 

418 

5L8 

15.37 

Baltimore 

3 
4 
5 
9 
18 
0 
3 

30 
10 
52 
10 
45 
19 
19 

57.8 
53.0 
54.0 
5:j.6 
56.2 
54.3 
54.5 

$14.00 
15.58 
15.98 
14.47 
18.57 
15.88 
15.55 

25 
8 
46 
15 
41 
26 
19 

53.6 
50.0 
52.0 
50.7 
51.6 
53.5 
52.0 

$15.29 

Boston 

18.64 

Chicago... , 

19.07 

Cincinnati 

14.30 

New  York 

19.94 

Philadelohia 

16.72 

Rochester 

18.89 

Total 

48 

194 

55.1 

16.05 

180 

52.1 

17.97 

Baltimore 

3 
6 
19 
6 
3 

69 
36 
152 
13 
35 

58.4 
54.0 
56.3 
54.3 
54.6 

$11.58 
13.59 
1L75 

n.i8 

11.69 

4 

56 
58 

7 
30 

54.0 
52.0 
52.2 
54.0 
52.0 

$5.65 

Chicago 

12.85 

NewYork 

14.11 

Philadelphia 

6.79 

Rochester 

16.26 

Total 

35 

305 

56.2 

n.90 

145 

53.3 

13.34 

Baltimore 

3 

4 
5 
9 
35 
7 
3 

303 
47 
1.017 
216 
821 
246 
238 

58.2 
52.9 
54.0 
53.4 
56.6 
54.3 
54.6 

$7.76 
8.01 
9.39 
7.76 
7.70 
7.27 
9.25 

255 
98 
845 
210 
852 
245 
274 

53.6 
50.0 
52.0 
50.5 
52.0 
53.1 
52.0 

$8.63 

Boston 

8.24 

Chicago 

10.00 

Cincinnati 

8.12 

NewYork 

8.81 

Philadelphia 

9.37 

Rochester 

10.01 

Total 

56 

3,888 

55.2 

8.40 

3,779 

53.1 

9.25 

208 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


Table  43.— ^Average  Full-Time  Hours  Per  Week  and  Average  Full-Time 
Weekly  Earnings,  in  Men's  Clothing  Manufacturing,  by  Cities,  1912  and 
1913— Continued. 

HAND  SEWERS,  PANTS:  FEMALE. 


City. 


Baltimore... 

Boston 

Chicago 

Cincinnati... 
New  York... 
Philadelphia 
Rochester . . . 

Total.. 


Number 
of  estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


3 
3 
5 
5 
11 
5 
3 


35 


1912 


Number 
of  em- 
ployees. 


106 
27 

506 
29 

117 
67 
85 


937 


Average 
full-time 
hours  per 


57.5 
54.0 
54.0 
53.9 
56.4 
54.2 
54.3 


54.7 


Average 
full-time 

weekly 
earnings. 


$6.88 
7.54 
8.80 
7.68 
6.89 
6.51 
9.03 


8.18 


1913 


Number 
of  em- 
ployees. 


39 
32 

461 
.^1 

117 
54 
96 


830 


Average 

full-time 

hours  per 

week. 


HAND  SEWERS,  VEST:  FEMAI.E. 


Baltimore . . . 

Chicago 

Cincinnati... 
New  York... 
Philadelphia 
Rochester... 

Total.. 


2 

3 
4 

13 
5 
3 


30 


44 
295 
23 
97 
23 
88 


570 


50.1 
54.0 
54.0 
56.4 
54.7 
54.4 


54.9 


$6.19 
9.96 
6.8.1 
8.87 
7.82 
8.25 


9.00 


44 

291 
19 
91 
25 
82 


552 


HAND  SEWERS,  ALL:  FEMALE.  • 


Baltimore... 

Boston 

Chicago 

Cincinnati... 
New  York... 
Philadelphia 
Rochesto'... 

Total.. 


3 

4 

6 

18 

39 

14 

5 


89 


453 

74 

1,818 

268 
1,035 

336 

411 


1,395 


58.1 
53.3 
54.0 
53.5 
56.6 
54.4 
54.5 


55.1 


r.4o 

7.84 
9.34 
7.67 
7.72 
7.16 


8.43 


338 
130 

1,5^ 
260 

1,060 
324 
452 


4,16^ 


OPERATORS,  COAT:  MALE. 


Baltinyire... 

Boston 

Chicago 

Cincinnati... 
New  York... 
Philadelphia 
Rochester... 

Total.. 


3 

4 
5 
5 
26 
7 
3 


53 


280 
90 

160 
16 

614 

139 
56 


1,364 


53.2 
54.0 
53.8 
5&5 
54.4 
54.6 


56.2 


S11.80 
1&33 
16.88 
11.17 
15.34 
13.67 
15.63 


14.63 


436 
53 

225 
20 

647 
186 


1,653 


OPERATORS,  COAT:  FEMALE. 


53.4 
50.0 
52.0 
50.5 
52.1 
53.5 
52.0 


52.0 


Average 

full-time 

weekly 

earnings. 


54.3 
52.0 
50.6 
52.0 
54.1 
52.0 


52.2 


52.1 


53.9 
50.0 
52.0 
50.9 
5L7 
53.6 
52.0 


52.5 


$8.63 
7.55 
9.00 
8.60 
8.07 
7.00 
9.11 


8.50 


$7.09 

10.86 

6.92 

10.00 

9.27 

9.50 


10.01 


53.7 

$8.i3 

50.0 

8.07 

52.0 

9.78 

50.5 

8.09 

52.0 

8.83 

53.3 

8.97 

52.0 

9.73 

9.20 


$11.72 
19.65 
17.85 
14.87 
16. 6G 
14.33 
18.03 


15.41 


Baltimore - 

8 

3 
5 
9 
15 
6 
3 

113 
16 
514 
135 
41 
67 
63 

56.2 
54.0 
54.0 
53.3 
56.0 
54.1 
54.6 

$7.41 
8.47 

lh28 
8.57 
7.68 
a  13 

10.34 

152 

9 

527 

138 

57 

74 

74 

63.2 
50.0 
52.0 
50.6 
52.5 
53.7 
52.0 

$8.04 

Boston 

7.92 

Chicago 

n.6i 

Cincinoiati 

9.29 

New  York 

8.93 

Philadelohia 

9.18 

Rochester  ....-t.^.ttt--t-t 

10.78 

Total 

44 

949 

54.3 

9.95 

1,081 

S2.1 

10l36 

•  This  group  is  a  combination  of  the  preceding  female  coat,  pants,  and  vest  hand  sewers. 


\1 


U- 


i 


I. 


♦  - 


M 


y" 


WORKING    CONDITIONS. 


209 


Table  43. — Average  Full-Time  Hours  Per  Week  and  Average  Full-Time 
Weekly  Earnings,  in  Men's  Clothing  Manufacturing,  by  Cities,  1912  and 
1913— Continued. 

OPERATORS,  PANTS:  MALE. 


City. 


Baltimore... 

Boston 

Chicago 

NewYork... 

Philadelphia 
Rochester... 

Total.. 


Number 

of  evStab- 

lish- 

ments. 


3 
3 
5 
21 
5 
3 


40 


1912 


Number 
of  em- 
ployees. 


167 

41 

137 

468 

69 

8 


890 


Average 

full-time 

hours  per 

week. 


58.4 
54.0 
54.0 
57.0 
54.9 
54.4 


56.5 


Average 
full-time 

weekly 
earnings. 


$12. 18 
10.54 
14.63 
14.71 
11.73 
15.00 


14.08 


1913 


Number 
of  em- 
ployees. 


39 

32 

115 

410 

72 

6 


704 


Average 

full-time 

hours  per 

week. 


OPERATORS,  PANTS:  FEMALE. 


Baltimore... 

Boston 

Chicago 

Cincimiati. . . 
New  York... 
Philadelphia 
Rodiester... 

Total.. 


3 
2 
5 
6 
15 
5 
3 


39 


117 

7 
374 
67 
97 
45 
99 


806 


57.1 
54.0 
54.0 
53.5 
56.6 
54.1 
54,7 


54.8 


r.64 

8.45 
10.87 

8.39 
10.91 

8.53 
10.08 


9.95 


115 
9 

432 
G9 
98 
75 
92 


890 


OPERATORS,  VEST:  MALE. 


OPERATORS,  VEST:  FEMALE. 


Baltimore. 
Chicago.... 
Cincinnati. 
New  York. 
Rochester. 

Total 


2 
3 

4 

10 

3 


22 


47 
195 
28 
54 
83 


407 


56.9 
54.0 
53.2 
56.0 
54.5 


54.6 


$6.78 
13.47 
7.02 
10.87 
10.35 


11.27 


61 
204 
28 
39 
75 


397 


OPERATORS,  ALL:  MALE.a 


Baltimore... 

Boston 

Chicago 

Cincinnati... 
NewYork... 
Philadelphia 
Rodiester.... 

Total.. 


3 
4 

6 

5 

51 

14 

4 


87 


510 
131 
373 

16 

1,150 

236 

64 


2,480 


59.2 
53.5 
54.0 
53.8 
56.7 
54.7 
54.6 


56. 3 


$11.89 
16.39 
16.76 
11.17 
15.20 
13.55 
15.55 


14.64 


521 
85 

415 

20 

1,160 

288 
92 


2,581 


53.4 
50.0 
52.0 
52.3 
53.3 
52.0 


52.3 


Average 
full-time 

weekly 
earnings. 


S3. 8 
50.0 
62.0 
50.5 
52.9 
53.6 
52.0 


52.3 


54.4 
52.0 
49.9 
53.8 
52.0 


62.3 


53.9 
50.0 
52.0 
50.9 
52.0 
53.5 
52.0 


52.5 


«  This  group  is  a  combination  of  the  preceding  male  coat,  pants,  and  vest  operators. 
11914°— 16 14 


$14.51 
18.33 
17.37 
17.59 
13.44 
15.73 


16.98 


$7.85 
8.53 

11.53 
9.94 

11.70 
8.16 

10.66 


10.55 


Baltimore 

2 

3 

15 

5 

54 
76 
68 
28 

59.5 
54.0 
56.6 
55.2 

$11.47 
20.34 
17.33 
17.43 

46 
75 
73 
30 

54.0 
52.0 
52.4 
53.5 

$13.08 
22.29 
19.07 
20.24 

Chicago 

NewYork 

Philadelphia 

Total 

25 

226 

56.3 

16.95 

224 

52.8 

19.07 

$7.62 
14. 16 
7.62 
12.49 
12.45 


12.36 


$12.05 
19.15 
18.52 
14.87 
17.18 
14.72 
17.88 


16.16 


I 


210 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


Table  43. — Average  Full-Time  Hours  Per  Week  and  Average  Full-Timb 
Weekly  Earnings,  in  Men's  Clothing  Manufacturing,  by  Cities,  1912  and 
1913— Continued. 

operators,  ALL:  FEMALE.a 


City. 


Baltimore... 

Boston 

Chicago 

Cincinnati. . . 
New  York... 
Philadelphia 
Rochester . . . 

Total. . 


Number 
of  estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


3 
3 

6 

19 

32 

8 

5 


76 


1912 


Number 
of  em- 
ployees. 


277 
23 
1,083 
230 
192 
112 
245 


2,162 


Average 

full-time 

hours  per 

w<eek. 


56.7 
54.0 
54.0 
53.3 
56.3 
54.1 
54.6 


54.5 


Average 

full-time 

weekly 

earnings. 


$7.40 
a46 

11.53 
a. 33 

10.21 
8.29 

10.24 


10.20 


ins 


Number 
of  em- 
ployees. 


318 
18 
1,163 
235 
194 
149 
241 


2,318 


Average 

full-time 

hours  per 

week. 


PRESSERS,C0AT:  MALE. 


Baltimore... 

Boston 

Chicago 

Cincinnati... 
New  York... 
Philadelphia 
Rochester . . . 

Total.. 


3 
4 
5 
9 
2G 
7 
3 


57 


255 
37 
596 
96 
716 
155 
172 


2,027 


57.9 
53.5 
54.0 
53.7 
56.4 
54.3 
54.7 


55.4 


S12.04 
15.89 
14.65 
12.94 
13.35 
11.91 
13.44 


13.49 


309 
48 
636 
91 
758 
247 
185 


2,274 


PRESSERS,  PANTS:  MALE. 


Baltimore . . . 

Boston 

Chicago 

Cincinnati... 
New  York... 
Philadelphia 
Rodiester... 

Total.. 


3 
3 
5 
6 
22 
5 
3 


47 


56 
21 

193 
30 

237 
45 
55 


637 


57.4 
54.0 
54.0 
53.6 
5(V.8 
54.5 
54.6 


55.4 


114.66 
15.78 
16.73 
11.30 
14.57 
12.63 
14.60 


14.99 


29 
18 

207 
32 

193 
46 
61 


586 


PRESSERS.  VEST:  MALE. 


Baltimore... 

Chicago 

Cincinnati... 
New  York... 
Philadelphia 
Rochestw... 

Total.. 


2 

3 
2 
16 
5 
3 


31 


25 

129 
5 

70 
13 
32 


274 


58.0 
54.0 
54.0 
56.3 
55.2 
54.4 


55.1 


111.68 
16. 41 
13.86 
14.13 
17.86 
13.70 


15.10 


23 
113 
5 
58 
16 
36 


251 


PRESSERS,  ALL:  MALE.» 


Baltimore... 

Boston 

Chicago 

Cindnnati... 
New  York... 
Philadelphia 
Rochester... 

Total.. 


3 

4 

6 

17 

53 

14 

5 


102 


336 
58 
918 
131 
1,023 
213 
250 


57.8 
53.7 
54.0 
53.7 
56.5 
54.4 
54.6 


2,938 


55.4 


$12.45 
15.85 
15.33 
12.60 
13.69 
12.43 
13.74 


13.97 


361 
66 
956 
128 
1,009 
309 
282 


3,111 


53.6 
60.0 
52.0 
50.5 
52.9 
53.6 
52.0 


52.2 


Average 
full-time 

weekly 
earnings. 


53.5 
50.0 
52.0 
50.9 
52.1 
53.6 
52.0 


52.3 


53.3 
50.0 
52.0 
50.7 
52.5 
53.3 
52.0 


52.2 


54.2 
52.0 
50.0 
52.9 
53.5 
52.0 


52.5 


53.5 
50.0 
52.0 
50.8 
52.2 
53.6 
52.0 


52.3 


•  This  group  is  a  combination  of  the  preceding  female  coat,  pants,  and  vest  operators. 
b  This  group  is  a  combination  of  the  preceding  male  coat,  pants,  and  vest  pressors. 


v.. 


$7.89 
8.22 

12.08 
9.28 

11.04 
a  67 

11.25 


10.77 


$12.92 
16.04 

i&eo 

13.81 
15.52 
12.30 
14.78 


$12.23 
19.55 
17.84 
11.89 
16.47 
14.11 
14.42 


1&19 


$14.50 
19.88 
13.49 
16.60 
16.66 
14.80 


17.60 


$12.07 
16.00 
17.31 
13.32 
15.77 
12.80 
14.70 


15.45 


r^ 


^^1 


WORKING  CONDITIONS. 


211 


Summary  figures  for  each  occupation  covered  by  this  report  are  given  in  the  table 
below.  Accoroing  to  the  plan  of  the  table,  direct  comparisons  can  be  made  properly 
only  between  the  data  for  successive  years  coming  from  identical  establishments. 
Data  from  identical  establishments  for  successive  years  are  grouped  in  the  table.  A 
greater  number  of  the  establishments  have  been  canvassed  each  succeeding  year. 

Table  44. — ^Average  and  Classified  Full-time  Hours  Per  Week,  Average 
AND  Classified  Rates  of  Wages  Per  Hour,  and  Average  Full-Time 
Weekly  Earnings,  in  Each  of  the  Principal  Occupations  in  Men's  Clothing 
Manufacturing,  1911  to  1913. 

[The  figures  for  each  two  years  grouped  are  for  identical  establishments.] 


V 


Occupation,  sex.  and 
number  of  establish- 


ments. 


15.03  ^ 


Year, 


4  - 


■i 


BastOTS,  coat,  female: 
36  establishments . 


50  establishments 

Basters,  pants,  female: 
11  establishmeats . 


20  establishments 

Basters,  vest,  female: 
17  establishments . 


26  establishments 

Bast<»^,  all,  female: » 
50  establishments 

73  establishments 

Hand  sewers,  coat,  fe- 
male: 
30  establishmoits 

56  establishments  . 

Hand  sewers,  pants, 
female: 
25  establishments . 

35  establishments . 

Hand  sewers,  vest,  fe- 
male: 
21  establishments . 

30  establishments . 

Hand  sewers,  all,  fe- 
male: ^ 
61  establishments . 

89  establishments  . 

Operators,    coat,    fe- 
male: 
34  establishmoits  . 


44  establishments 


•  This  group  is 

*  This  group  is 


1911 
1912 

1912 
1913 

1911 
1912 

1912 
1913 

1911 
1912 

1912 
1913 

1911 
1912 

1912 
1913 


1911 
1912 

1912 
1913 


Num- 
ber 
of 
em- 
ploy. 


Aver- 
age 
full- 
time 
hours 
per 
week 


1911 
1912 

1912 
1913 


1911 
1912 

1912 
1913 


1911 
1912 

1912 
1913 


1911 
1912 

1912 
1913 


603 

668 

839 
924 

152 
166 

183 
127 

161 
212 

274 
207 

916 
1,046 

1,296 
1,258 


2,668 
2,427 

2,888 
2,779 


656 
819 

937 
830 


339 
512 

570 
552 


3,663 
3,758 

4,395 
4,161 


756 
833 

949 
1,081 


Per  cent  of  employ- 
ees whose  full- 
time  hours  per 
week  were — 


Un- 
der 
54. 


55.2 
55.1 

55.5 
52.4 

55.0 
54.8 

54.8 
52 

54.7 
54 

55.4 
52.9 

55.0 
55.0 

55.4 
52.5 


54.8 
54.8 

55.2 
52.1 


54.9 
54.5 

54.7 
52.0 


54.6 
54.3 

54.9 
52.2 


54.8 
54.7 

55.1 
52.1 


54.2 
54.1 

54.3 
52.1 


2.3 
2.1 

3.2 
81.9 

4.6 
3.0 

2.7 
73.2 

11.2 
3.3 

1.8 
54 

4.3 
2.5 


2. 
76. 


9 


54. 


Over 
54 
and 
un- 
der 
57. 


3.6 
6.2 

7.5 
86.2 


7.4 

7.7 

6.0 
88.0 


3.8 
3.7 

3.3 
84.1 


4.3 
6.2 

-6.7 
86.3 


7.1 
8.1 

7.4 
86.1 


61.2 
65.6 

52.0 
18.1 

63.2 
68.1 

67.8 
26.8 

44.7 
59.9 

46.4 
37.2 

58.6 
64.8 

53.0 
22.1 


60.7 
59.4 

49.6 
13.8 


68.9 
77.3 

68.6 
12.0 


58 

72.71 


58 
11 


62. 
65.1 

54.9 
13.1 


20.6 
17.1 

22.5 


18.4 
17.5 

14.8 


34.2 
27.4 

30.3 

8.7 

22.6 
19.2 

23.1 
1.4 


27.7 
24.8 

24.4 


8.5 
5.7 


57 
to 
60, 
in- 
clu- 
sive. 


Aver- 
age 

rate  of 

wages 
I)er 

hour. 


15.9 
15.2 

22.3 


13.8 
11.4 

14.8 


9.9 
9.4 

21.5 


14.5 
13.5 

21.1 


8.1 
9.7 

18.4 


15.3 
9.3 


13.2   12.2 


76.7 
80.2 


32.4 
21.3 

25.8 
4.3 


24.7 
20.1 

22.2 


13.6 
9.6 

73. 8|  15.3 
13.91 


5.0 
2.3 

11.9 


9.1 

8 

16.2 


2.5 
2.1 

3.6 


Per  cent  of  employees 
earning  each  classified 
rate  of  wages  per  hour. 


Un- 
der 
12 
cts. 


to.  1756 
,1776 

.1654 
.1843 

.1529 
.1774 

.1682 
.1659 

.1806 
.2007 

.1845 
.2041 

.1727 
.1823 

.1698 
.1857 


,1545 
.1571 

,1526 
,1776 


,1407 
,1530 

.1497 
.1633 


.1671 
.1731 

.1646 
.1921 


,1532 
.1584 

,1535 
.1767 


.1945 
.1908 

.1835 
.1989 


15.9 
17.3 

25.3 

18.7 

32.8 
15.6 

27.3 
16.5 

10.4 
10.4 

19.0 
11.1 

17.8 
15.7 

24.2 
17.2 


30.0 

26.8 

30.3 
14.4 


40.4 
30.4 

31.4 
17.0 


19.8 

18.7 

2.3.9 
11.2 


30.8 
26.3 

29.7 
14.5 


12 
and 
un- 
der 

16 
cts. 


29.2 
25.6 

26.6 
23.7 

26.3 
27.8 

26.8 
38.6 

23.6 
18.9 

21.2 
19.8 

27 
24.6 

25.5 
24.6 


29.1 
30.3 

30. 
30. 


25.6 
28.1 

30.1 
33.7 


27.2 
22.7 

24.7 
16.7 


16 
and 
un- 
der 

20 
cts. 


23.5 
23.1 


20. 
21. 


28. 
28. 


29.8 
29.4 


14.7  21.4   20.2 
15.9  21.3   21.3 


25.6 
25.9 

18.0 
22.8 

26.7 
21.2 

19.0 
15.9 

24.4 
23.1 

20.0 
20.7 


20.3 
23.3 

21.3 
25.7 


19.9 
23.9 

23.3 
27.8 


26.0 
28 

25 
27.2 


20.7 
24.1 

22.3 
26.3 


20 
and 
un- 
der 

25 
cts. 


"25 

cts. 

and 

over. 


18.7 
21.0 

17.4 
17.6 

10.  o 
20.5 


16. 
13. 


19.0 
10.9' 


23.2 
23.  ll 


21.3 
21.2 


34.2 
26.9 

23.4 
29.5 

20.1 
22.1 

18.5 
19.2 


14.9 
13.6 

12.4 
18.4 


11.3 
13.9 

12.0 
17.5 


20.6 
25.0 

21.1 
30.8 

» 

14.8 
15.2 

13.4 
19.8 


25.3 
21.8 

19.3 
20.3 


Aver- 
age 
full- 
time 
week- 
ly 
earn- 
ings. 


12.6 
13.0 

10.0 
18.5 

4.6 
10.2 

11.5 

8.7 

4.9 
22.7 

17.5 
23.7 

10.0 
14.5 

11.8 
18.4 


5.7 
6.0 

5.3 
10.9 


2.8 
3.7 

3.3 
4.0 


6.5 
5.7 

4.9 
14.1 


5.2 
5.4 

4.8 
9.9 


18.4 
19. 

17.3 
24.5 


19.64 
9.76 

9.15 
9.64 

8.42 
9.71 

9.20 

8.74 

9.86 
10.96 

10.17 
10.76 

9.48 
9.99 

9.37 
9.73 


8.45 
8.60 

8.40 
9.25 


7.69 
8.32 

8.18 
8.50 


9.10 
9.40 

9.00 
10.01 


8.37 
8.65 

8.43 
9.20 


10.53 
10.32 

9.95 
10.36 


a  combination  of  the  preceding  female  coat,  pants,  and  vest  basters. 
a  combination  of  the  preceding  female  coat,  pants,  and  vest  hand  sewers. 


212 


MEN  S  FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


I- 


!  I 

5 


Table  44. — ^Average  and  Classified  Full-time  Hours  Per  Week,  Averaob 
AND  Classified  Rates  of  Wages  Per  Hour,  and  Average  Full-Timb 
Weekly  Earnings,  in  Each  of  the  Principal  Occupations  in  Men's  Clothing 
Manufacturing,  1911  to  1913 — Continued. 


Num- 

Aver- 

Per cent  of  employ- 
ees   whose    fufl- 
time    hours    per 
week  were— 

Aver- 

Per  cent   of  employees 
earning  each  classified 
rate  of  wages  per  hour. 

Aver^ 
fX 

Occnpation,  sex.  and 
number  of  estaolish- 
ments. 

Year. 

ber 
of 
em- 
ploy- 

age 
full- 
time 
hours 

PCT 

week. 

age 
rate  of 
wages 

per 

Un- 
der 
54. 

Over 
64 

67 
to 

Un- 

13 

and 

16 

and 

20 
and 

25 

time 
week- 
ly 

ees. 

M. 

and 

60, 

hour. 

der 

un- 

un- 

un- 

cts. 

earn- 

un- 

in^ 

12 

der 

der 

der 

and 

ings. 

der 

elu- 

cts. 

16 

20 

26 

over. 

• 

67. 

sive. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

Operators,  pants,  fe- 

male: 

26  establishments . 

1911 

599 

54.8 

10.2 

57.3 

21.5 

11.0 

10.1803 

17.4 

26.0 

25.6 

16.9 

14.1 

19.83 

1912 

752 

54.6 

7.8 

64.2 

17.7 

10.2 

.1870 

16.7 

23.2 

21.1 

21.7 

17.2 

10.21 

39  establishments . 

1912 

806 

54.8 

6.2 

57.9 

23.6 

12.3 

.1819 

18.4 

24.3 

21.0 

21.7 

14.6 

9.95 

Operators,    vest,    fe- 

1913 

890 

52.3 

78.3 

21.7 

.2019 

9.3 

23.7 

21.7 

21.2 

24.0 

10.66 

male: 

17  establishments . 

1911 

312 

54.4 

5.4 

59.9 

26.3 

8.3 

.2064 

6.7 

19.9 

28.3 

23.7 

23.4 

11.23 

1912 

366 

54.2 

5.0 

68.0 

21.3 

5.7 

.2181 

6.2 

17.7 

23.3 

23.8 

29.0 

11.82 

22  establishments . 

1912 

407 

54.6 

4.2 

53.6 

31.4 

10.8 

.2068 

12.0 

18.9 

21.4 

22.1 

25.6 

11.27 

1913 

397 

52.3 

78.6 

16.1 

5.3 

.2364 

7.8 

12.6 

17.4 

23.2 

39.0 

12.36 

Operators,  all,  female:" 

55  establishments  . 

1911 

1,667 

54.5 

7.9 

66.6 

18.8 

6.7 

.1916 

14.2 

22.8 

23.2 

22.0 

17.8 

10.43 

1912 

1,951 

54.3 

7.^ 

71.8 

14.9 

6.9 

.1945 

14.4 

21.4 

21.6 

22.1 

20.5 

10.56 

76  establishments  . 

1912 

2,162 

54.5 

6.3 

64.1 

21.4 

8.2 

.1873 

17.4 

22.8 

21.2 

20.7 

17.9 

10.20 

1913 

2,318 

52.2 

81.8 

17.3 

.9 

.2066 

9.7 

21.5 

20.8 

21.1 

26.8 

10.77 

16 

20 

25 

Un- 

and 

and 

and 

30 

der 

un- 

un- 

un- 

cts. 

16 

der 

der 

der 

and 

cts. 

20 
cts. 

25 
cts. 

30 
cts. 

over. 

Basters.  coat,  male: 

30  establishments  . 

1911 

1,112 

55.3 

7.0 

41.7 

38.1 

13.1 

.2208 

21.6 

20.1 

24.8 

20.2 

13.2 

12.15 

1912 

1,036 

55.2 

7.4 

46.2 

33.2 

13.1 

.2179 

21.0 

21.0 

26.4 

IS.l 

13.6 

12.01 

54  establishments . 

1912 

1,409 

55.7 

8.7 

34.6 

31.9 

24.9 

.2151 

22.4 

22.4 

25.6 

16.4 

13.2 

11.94 

Hand    sewers,    coat, 

1913 

1,472 

52.5 

74.0 

26.0 

.2540 

12.9 

14.9 

23.8 

21.7 

26.6 

13.30 

male: 

18  establishments . 

1911 

221 

55.8 

6.8 

31.7 

37.6 

23.9 

.2037 

29.5 

27.2 

19.9 

10.9 

12.7 

11.34 

1912 

190 

56.0 

11.6 

25.8 

37.4 

25.3 

.2171 

18.4 

24.7 

27.4 

18.4 

11.0 

12.11 

S5  establishments . 

1912 

305 

56.2 

9.8 

19.7 

25.4 

36.1 

.2120 

21.3 

22.0 

29.8 

17.7 

9.2 

11.90 

Operators,  coat,  male: 

1913 

145 

52.2 

84.1 

15.9 

.2564 

17.2 

17.2 

17.9 

10.3 

37.2 

13.34 

31  establishments . 

1911 

913 

55.9 

4.7 

30.7 

40.6 

24.0 

.2641 

13.0 

9.3 

23.9 

21.5 

32.4 

14.70 

1912 

878 

56.0 

5.9 

30.4 

37.8 

25.8 

.2656 

11.1 

8.4 

23.3 

26.2 

31.0 

14.80 

53  establishments. 

1912 

1,364 

56.2 

9.8 

23.6 

39.6 

36.1 

.2616 

11.1 

9.8 

25.2 

26.1 

28.7 

14.63 

Operators,  pants,  male: 
20  establishments . 

1913 
1911 

1,653 
439 

52.5 
56.8 

66.9 
5.9 

33.1 
26.0 

23.2 

44.8 

.2948 
.2418 

11.6 
16.9 

8.5 
11.8 

15.2 
26.7 

18.0 
21.6 

46.6 
23.0 

15.41 
13.71 

1912 

515 

56.8 

6.6 

12.4 

15.9 

46.1 

.2427 

14.9 

14.4 

26.4 

22.5 

22.0 

13.76 

40  establishments . 

1912 

890 

56.5 

3.8 

27.2 

29.7 

39.2 

.2485 

12.1 

12.6 

24.4 

27.9 

23.0 

14.08 

Operators,  vest,  male: 

1913 

704 

52.3 

76.6 

23.0 

.4 

.3263 

8.5 

6.3 

11.2 

16.2 

57.8 

16.98 

16  establishments. 

1911 

109 

55.2 

10.1 

31.2 

43.1 

15.6 

.3108 

5.5 

6.5 

13.8 

18.3 

55.9 

17.11 

1912 

140 

64.7 

5.7 

57.9 

26.4 

10.0 

.3258 

2.8 

3.6 

7.1 

17.1 

60.2 

19.28 

25  establishments  . 

1912 

226 

56.3 

3.1 

35.8 

25.2 

35.8 

.3041 

10.6 

4.0 

15.0 

19.9 

50.4 

16.9.5 

Operators,  all,  male:  * 

1913 

224 

52.8 

58.0 

35.7 

6.3 

.3627 

4.5 

3.6 

8.q 

12.6 

71.4 

19.07 

46  establishments  . 

1911 

1,461 

56.1 

5.5 

29.3 

35.6 

29.6 

.2606 

13.6 

9.9 

24.0 

21.3 

31.4 

14.58 

1912 

1,533 

56.1 

6.1 

33.6 

29.4 

30.9 

.2659 

11.5 

10.0 

22.9 

24.1 

31.6 

14.86 

87  establishments. 

1912 

2,480 

56.3 

7.1 

27.0 

29.8 

37.2 

.2610 

11.4 

10.3 

24.0 

25.6 

28.7 

14.64 

Pressers,  coat,  male: 

1913 

2,581 

52.5 

68.8 

30.6 

.7 

.3090 

10.1 

7.5 

13.5 

17.0 

51.8 

16.16 

40  establishments . 

1911 

1,673 

55.1 

4.5 

52.2 

33.0 

10.4 

.2397 

13.0 

16.9 

23.2 

28.7 

18.3 

13.18 

1912 

1,606 

55.0 

7.0 

62.9 

30.0 

10.1 

.2482 

9.9 

14.4 

25.3 

29.9 

20.4 

13.63 

57  establishments  . 

1912 

2,027 

55.4 

8.1 

42.0 

30.1 

19.8 

.2441 

11.9 

13.5 

27.1 

28.3 

19.2 

13.49 

1913 

2,274 

52.3 

81.61 

18.4 

.2878 

6.8 

10.5 

16.3 

21.7 

46.8 

15.03 

•  This  group  is  a  combination  of  the  preceding  female  coat,  pants,  and  vest  operators. 
6  This  group  is  a  combination  of  the  preceding  male  coat,  pants,  and  vest  operates. 


'f^.» 


WORKING   CONDITIONS. 


213 


m 


V 


• •••'1^(R»-» 


— i 


K 


Table  44. — ^Average  and  Classified  Full-Time  Hours  Per  Week,  Average 
AND  Classified  Rates  of  Wages  Per  Hour,  and  Average  Full-Time 
Weekly  Earnings,  in  Each  of  the  Principal  Occupations  in  Men's  Clothing 
Manufacturing,  1911  to  1913 — Continued. 


Per  cent  of  employ- 
ees   whose    full- 

Per   cent   of  employees 

Num- 

Aver- 
age 
fnll- 
time 

time    hours    per 
week  were— 

Aver- 

eammg each  classified 
rate  of  wages  per  hour. 

Aver- 
age 
full. 

Occupation,  sex,  and 
num1)or  of  cstablish- 

Year. 

ber 
of 

age 
rate  of 

time 

mAntH 

em- 

hours 

Over 

67 

wages 

16 

20 

25 

week- 

ploy- 

ner 

Un- 
der 
54. 

54 

to 

per 

Un- 

and 

and 

and 

30 

ly 

ees. 

week. 

54. 

and 

60, 

hour. 

der 

im- 

un- 

un- 

Cts. 

eam- 

un- 

In- 

16 

der 

der 

der 

and 

mgs. 

der 

clu- 

cts. 

20 

25 

30 

over. 

57. 

sive. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

Pressors,  pants,  male: 

29  establishments. 

1911 

401 

65.4 

7.5 

47.4 

23.9 

21.2 

SO. 2496 

15.0 

20.4 

16.2 

20.2 

27.9 

S13.84 

1912 

461 

65.2 

7.2 

57.5 

17.6 

17.8 

.2788 

6.8 

15.6 

19.3 

18.9 

39.5 

15.40 

47  establishments. 

1912 

637 

65.4 

4.7 

45.1 

29.8 

20.4 

.2706 

6.4 

13.3 

22.3 

25.1 

32.8 

14.99 

1913 

586 

52.2 

86.2 

13.6 

.3 

.3104 

4.3 

9.7 

15.4 

18.3 

52.4 

16.19 

Pressers,  vest,  male: 

20  establishments. 

1911 

186 

54.7 

4.8 

54.8 

29.0 

11.3 

.2629 

5.9 

18.3 

20.4 

22.6 

32.8 

14.37 

1912 

225 

64.5 

4.9 

64.4 

23.6 

7.1 

.2852 

7.1 

6.7 

16.9 

22.7 

46.6 

15.62 

31  establishments. 

1912 

274 

55.1 

3.3 

50.4 

30.7 

15.7 

.2749 

9.9 

7.3 

20.8 

21.5 

40.5 

15.10 

1913 

251 

52.6 

74.9 

2M 

4.0 

.3360 

3.6 

7.2 

12.4 

20.3 

56.6 

17.60 

Pres.sors,  all,  males:  a 

64  ostablishments. 

1911 

2,160 

55.1 

6.0 

51.5 

31.0 

12.4 

.2435 

12.8 

17.6 

21.7 

26.6 

21.4 

13.40 

1912 

2,292 

55.0 

6.8 

55.0 

26.9 

11.3 

.2580 

9.1 

13.9 

23.3 

27.0 

26.8 

14.17 

102  ostablishmonts 

1912 

2,938 

55.4 

6.9 

43.4 

30.1 

19.5 

.2527 

10.5 

12.9 

25.5 

27.0 

24.1 

13.97 

1913 

3,111 

52.3 

8L9 

17.7 

.4 

.2969 

5.3 

10.1 
20 

15.8 
25 

20.9 

47.9 

15.45 

30 

Un- 

and 

and 

and 

40 

der 

im- 

im- 

im- 

Cts. 

20 

der 

der 

der 

and 

cts. 

25 
cts. 

30 
cts. 

40 
Cts. 

over. 

Bushelcrs  and  tailors. 

male: 

42  establishments. 

1911 

496 

54.2 

23.4 

27.4 

37.1 

12.1 

.2475 

21.8 

27.0 

32.9 

17.3 

LO 

13.33 

1912 

454 

54.2 

23.3 

3L7 

32.4 

12.6 

.2477 

17.3 

33.9 

28.0 

20.5 

.2 

13.34 

68  establishments. 

1912 

574 

54.8 

19.9 

29.1 

3L7 

19.3 

.2434 

20.6 

.^4.3 

27.4 

17.6 

.2 

13.28 

1913 

644 

62.4 

82.8 

13.7 

3.6 

.2683 

10.0 

27.6 

32.5 

26.7 

2.6 

14.01 

Cutters,  cloth,  hand. 

male: 

39  establishments. 

1911 

1,545 

49.9 

73.9 

24.1 

1.3 

.6 

.4035 

1.0 

3.0 

7.6 

35. 7 

52.7 

20.01 

1912 

1,694 

49.9 

68.5 

30.6 



.8 

.4032 

.9 

2.3 

.90 

34.2 

53.7 

19.99 

50  establishments. 

1912 

1,865 

49.7 

73.5 

25.7 

.8 

.4083 

.8 

2.0 

8.2 

32.9 

56.1 

20.18 

1913 

1,743 

48.9 

99.1 

.9 

.4355 

.6 

1.7 

30.2 

67.5 

2L22 

Cuttors,cloth,machine, 

male: 

26  establishm^ts. 

1911 

101 

50.3 

75.2 

5.0 

12.9 

6.9 

.4412 

5.0 

1.0 

6.9 

18.8 

68.3 

21.89 

1912 

90 

49.9 

73.4 

23.3 

3.3 

.4371 

5.6 

2.2 

4.4 

17.8 

69.9 

2L61 

42  establishments. 

1912 

147 

50.5 

67.3 

21.1 

U.6 

.4366 

3.4 

L4 

5.4 

2L8 

68.0 

21.82 

1913 

166 

49.3 

95.2 

4.8 

.4512 

1.8 

1.8 

20.6 

75.9 

22.19 

Examiners,  shop  and 

stock  room,  male: 

31  establishmonts. 

1911 

209 

52.4 

37.9 

53.5 

5.6 

3.0 

.2914 

4.0 

19.3 

33.5 

38.3 

4.8 

15.20 

1912 

268 

52.2 

39.2 

54.9 

3.4 

2.6 

.3023 

6.3 

10.8 

39.6 

35.4 

7.8 

15.67 

61  establishmonts. 

1912 

403 

53.1 

39.7 

37.5 

7.2 

15.6 

.2920 

5.7 

15.4 

39.2 

33.7 

6.0 

15.39 

1913 

418 

51.8 

70.3 

29.2 

.5 

.2978 

4.1 

14.1 

35.4 

40.7 

5.7 

15.37 

Fitters  or  trimmers. 

ooat,  male: 

32  establishments. 

1911 

140 

54.5 

6.4 

59.3 

32.1 

2.1 

.2943 

10.0 

16.4 

36.4 

25.7 

11.5 

16.05 

1912 

131 

54.4 

6.1 

70.2 

2L4 

2.3 

.2970 

9.2 

17.6 

35.9 

29.0 

8.4 

16.16 

4S  ostablishments. 

1912 

194 

55.1 

9.3 

47.9 

27.8 

14.9 

.2915 

11.3 

18.0 

33.0 

27.3 

10.3 

16.05 

1913 

180 

52.1 

79.4 

20.6 

•  •  •  •  • 

.3450 

3.9 

8.9 

25.6 

28.9 

32.8 

17.97 

"  This  group  is  a  combination  of  the  preceding  male  coat,  pants,  and  vest  pressers. 


214 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


*l 


WORKING   CONDITIONS. 


215 


I 


From  the  table  it  is  seen  that  in  1913  the  average  full-time  weekly  earnings  of  male 
employees,  represented  by  13  occupations,  ranged  from  $13.30  for  basters,  coata,  to 
$22.19  for  cutters,  cloth,  machine.  For  females,  represented  by  9  occupations,  the 
average  full-time  weekly  earnings  varied  from  $8.50  for  hand  sewers,  pante,  to  $12.36 
for  operators,  vesta.  The  average  hours  of  labor  in  1913  of  nearly  all  occupations  were 
between  52  and  53  per  week.     For  cutters,  the  average  was  about  49  hours  per  week. 

Wages  and  hours  of  labor  differ  in  different  establishmenta;  hence  the  inclusion  or 
exclusion  of  one  or  more  establishmentfl  in  a  group,  if  the  wages  and  hours  thereof 
differ  considerably  from  the  average,  may  raise  or  lower  the  average  for  the  proup. 
Referring  to  the  above  table,  it  is  seen  that  the  average  full-time  weekly  earnings  of 
female  coat  basters  in  36  establishmente  in  1912  was  $9.76,  while  in  50  establishmente, 
in  the  same  vear,  the  averace  was  $9.15.  In  36  establishmente  there  was  an  increase 
in  full-time  weekly  earnings  from  $9.64  in  1911  to  $9.76  in  1912,  and  in  50  establish- 
mente there  was  an  increase  from  $9.15  in  3912  to  $9.64  in  1913.  While  the  average 
weekly  earnings  of  the  two  different  groups  of  establishmente  happen  to  be  the  same 
in  1911  and  1913,  the  first  group  of  comparable  figures  shows  an  increase  from  1911  to 

1912  and  the  second  group  of  comparable  figiu-es  shows  an  increase  from  1912  to  1913. 
Thus  the  figures  of  the  two  groups  considered  together  indicate  an  increase  of  weekly 
earnings  for  the  occupation  between  1911  and  1913.  As  before  stated,  direct  compari- 
son can  be  made  only  between  the  data  for  identical  establishmente  m  two  consecu- 
tive years.  ,  ,  ,, 

Owing  to  a  change  in  the  number  of  establishmente  from  year  to  year,  and  the  con- 
sequent change  in  the  averages,  it  is  diflicult  to  make  a  comparison  of  the  actual  data 
over  a  period  of  years  which  will  give  an  exact  measure  of  the  changes.  To  aid  in  the 
making  of  such  a  comparison,  relative  (or  index)  numbers  have  been  computed  from 
the  averages  of  the  preceding  table  for  full-time  hours  per  week,  rates  of  wages  per 
hour,  an(f  full-time  weekly  earnings  for  each  occupation  for  the  years  1911  to  1913, 
inclusive     These  relative  numbers  are  simply  percentages  in  which  the  figures  for 

1913  are  taken  as  the  base,  or  100  per  cent.  The  relative  for  each  year  is  the  per  cent 
that  the  average  for  that  year  is  of  the  average  for  1913.  Thus,  in  the  table  below, 
the  full-time  weekly  earnings  of  female  coat  basters  in  1911  were  93.8  per  cent  of  the 
full-time  weekly  earnings  in  1913,  as  determined  from  the  two  ^oups  of  comparable 
averages  shown  in  the  table  above.  In  1912  the  relative  full-time  weekly  earnings 
in  thw  occupation  were  94.9  per  cent  of  such  earnings  in  1913. 


Table  45.— Relative  Full-Time  Hours  Per  Week,  Rates  op  Wages  Per  Hour, 
AND  Full-Time  Weekly  Earnings  in  the  Principal  Occupations  in  Men's 
Clothing  Manufacturing,  1911  to  1913. 


\ 


■-x^ 


>v^  ^ 


r 


"\ 


Basters,  coat,  male. 

Basters,  coat,  female. 

Basters,  pants, 
female. 

Basters,  vest,  female. 

Yeor. 

Relar 
tive 
full- 
time 
hours 

week. 

Relar 
tive 

rate  of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

Relar 

tive 

fuU- 

time 

week- 

ly 

earn- 
ings. 

Relar 

tive 

fuU- 

time 

hours 

per 

week. 

Rela- 
tive 

rate  of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

Rela- 
tive 
full- 
time 
week- 
ly 
earn- 
ings. 

Rela- 
tive 
full- 
time 
hours 

per 
week. 

Rela- 
tive 

rate  of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

Rela- 
tive 
fuU- 
time 
week- 
ly 
earn- 
ings. 

Rela- 
tive 
full- 
time 
hours 
per 
week. 

Relar 
tive 

rate  of 

wages 
per 

hour. 

Rela- 
tive 
fuU- 
timo 
week- 
ly 
earn- 
ings. 

1911 

106.3 
106.1 
100.0 

85.6 

84.7 

100.0 

90.8 

89.8 
100.0 

106.1 
105.9 
100.0 

88.7 

89.7 

100.0 

93.8 

94.9 

100.0 

104.4 
104.0 
100.0 

87.4 
101.4 
100.0 

91.3 
105.3 
100.0 

104.7 
104.7 
100.0 

81.3 

90.4 

100.0 

85.0 

1912 

94.5 

1913 

100.0 

Basters,  all,  female.^ 

Bushelers  and  tailors, 
male. 

Cutters,  cloth,  hand, 
male. 

Cutters,  cloth,  ma- 
chine, male. 

1911 

• 

105.5 
105.5 
100.0 

86.6 

91.4 

100.0 

91.4 

96.3 

100.0 

104.6 
104.6 
100.0 

90.6 

90.7 

100.0 

74.7 

94.8 

100.0 

101.6 
101.6 
100.0 

93.8 

93.8 

100.0 

95.2 

95.1 

100.0 

103.3 
102.4 
100.0 

97.7 

96.8 

100.0 

99.6 

1912 

98.3 

1913 

100.0 

Examiners,  shop  and 
stock  room,  nude. 

Fitters  or  trimmers, 
coat,  male. 

Hand  sewers,  coat, 
male. 

Hand  sewers,  coat, 
female. 

uw 

102.9 
102.5 
100.0 

94.5 

98.1 

100.0 

97.1 
100.1 
100.  a 

106.0 
105.8 
100.0 

83.7 

84.5 

100.0 

88.7 

89.3 

100.0 

107.3 
107.7 
100.0 

77.6 

82.7 

100.0 

83.5 

89.2 

100.0 

106.0 
106.0 
100.0 

84.5 

85.9 

100.0 

89.2 

1912 

90.8 

1913 

100.0 

Hand  sewers,  pants, 
female. 

Hand  sewers,  vest, 
female. 

Hand  sewers,  all, 
female.  > 

Operators,  coat,  male. 

1911 

106.0 
105.2 
100.0 

84.3 

91.7 

100.0 

89.0 

96.2 

100.0 

105.8 
105.2 
100.0 

82.7 

85.7 

100.0 

87.0 

89.9 

100.0 

106.0 
105.8 
100.0 

84.0 

86.9 

100.0 

88.7 

91.6 

100.0 

106.9 
107.1 
100.0 

88.2 

88.7 

100.0 

94.3 

1912 

94.9 

1913 

100.0 

Operators,  coat, 
female. 

Operators,  pants, 
male. 

Operators,  pants, 
female. 

Operators,  vest, 
male. 

1911 

104.4 
104.2 
100.0 

94.0 

92.3 

100.0 

98.0 

96.0 

100.0 

108.0 
108.0 
100.0 

76.4 

76.7 
100.0 

82.6 

82.9 

100.0 

105.2 
104.8 
100.0 

86.9 

90.1 

100.0 

91.3 

94.3 

100.0 

107.6 
106.6 
100.0 

79.9 

83.8 

100.0 

78.9 

1912 

88.9 

1913 

100.0 

Operators,  vest, 
female. 

Operators,  all, 
male.c 

Operators,  all, 
female.<( 

Pressers,  coat, 
male. 

1911 

104.8 
104.4 
100.0 

82.8 

87.5 

100.0 

86.6 

91.2 

100.0 

107.2 
107.2 
100.0 

82.8 

84.5 

100.0 

88.9 

90.6 

100.0 

104.8 
104.4 
100.0 

89.3 

90.7 

100.0 

93.5 

94.7 

100.0 

106.1 
105.9 
100.0 

81.9 

84.8 

100.0 

86.8 

1912 

89.8 

WIS 

100.0 

Pressor,  pants,  male. 

Pressers,  vest,  male. 

Pressers,  all,  male.« 

1911 

106.5 
106.1 
100.0 

78.0 

87.2 

100.0 

83.2 

92.6 

100.0 

105.3 
105.0 
100.0 

75.4 

81.8 

100.0 

79.4 

85.8 

100.0 

106.1 
105.9 
100.0 

80.6 

85.4 

100.0 

85.5 

90.4 

100.0 

1912 

1913 

J 

•  This  group  is  a  combination  of  the  preceding  female  coat,  pants,  and  vest  basters. 

•  This  group  is  a  combination  of  the  preceding  female  coat,  pants,  and  vest  hand  sewers, 
e  This  group  is  a  combination  of  the  preceding  male  coat,  pants,  and  vest  operators. 

<  This  group  is  a  combination  of  the  preceding  female  coat,  pants,  and  vest  operates. 

•  TliJs  group  is  a  combinatitHi  of  the  preceding  male  coat,  pants,  and  vest  pressers. 


I 


216 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


K^ 


WORKING   CONDITIONS. 


217 


The  relative  numbers  for  the  several  occupations  in  the  above  table  show  a  general 
tendency  toward  a  reduction  of  working  hours  and  increase  in  rates  of  wages  and  of 
earnings  per  full  week  in  this  industry. 

No  data  are  available  to  show  the  amount  of  work  afforded  employees  each  year  or 
the  variation  from  year  to  year.  The  relative  full-time  hours  per  week  indicate  the 
change  in  the  hours  of  labor  of  employees  working  full  time,  but  do  not  reflect  in  any 
way  a  greater  or  less  amount  of  full-time  work  afforded.  Likewise,  the  relative  full- 
time  weekly  earnings  are  based  on  the  earnings  of  employees  who  worked  full  time 
and  the  equivalent  full-time  earnings  of  such  employees  who  worked  less  than  full 
time. 

A  like  table  of  relative  (or  index)  numbers  is  next  shown  for  the  industry  as  a  whole 
as  determined  by  a  combination  of  the  data  for  the  several  occupations  covered. 
Data  were  obtained  for  the  principal  occupations  of  the  industry,  as  before  stated, 
but  not  for  all  occupations. 

Table  46. — Relative  Full-Time  Hours  Per  Week,  Rates  op  Wages  Per  Hour, 
AND  Full-Time  Weekly  Earnings  in  Men's  Clothing  Manufacturing,  1911 
TO  1913. 

(1913^  100.0) 


Year. 

Relative 

full-time 

hours  per 

week. 

Relative 

rates  of 

wages  per 

hour. 

Relative 

full-time 

weekly 

earnings. 

1911 

105.6 
105.4 
100.0 

86.0 

88.1 

100.0 

90.3 

92.3 

100.0 

1912 

1913 

From  the  table  above  it  is  seen  that  the  relative  (or  index)  numbers  for  full-time 
hours  per  week  in  the  manufacture  of  men's  readv-made  clothing  decreased  from 
106.6  in  1911  to  100  in  1913;  or,  in  other  words,  full-time  hours  per  week  were  105.6 
per  cent  in  1911  of  what  they  were  in  1913,  and  in  1912  105.4  per  cent  of  what  they 
were  in  1913.  The  relative  number  for  rates  of  wages  per  hour  increased  from  86  in 
1911  to  88.1  in  1912  and  100  in  1913.  The  increase  in  full-time  weekly  earnings 
was  somewhat  less  than  in  rates  of  wages  per  hour  because  of  the  reduction  of  hours 
in  the  industry.  Relative  full-time  weekly  earnings  increased  from  90.3  in  1911  to 
92.3  in  1912^  and  to  100  in  1913. 

The  relative  numbers  for  each  year  from  1911  to  1913  for  the  industry  as  a  whole 
were  computed,  not  from  the  relative  numbers  for  the  several  occupations  but  from 
the  actual  hours,  rates  of  wages  per  hour,  and  weekly  earnings  of  all  employees  in  the 
several  occupations.  For  each  year  the  average  hours,  rates  of  wages,  and  weekly 
earnings  were  computed  for  all  employees  in  all  occupations  combined,  and  the 
average  for  each  preceding  year  was  compared  with  the  average  for  1913  to  determine 
the  relative  (or  index)  number  for  the  industry. 

A  word  of  caution  is  given  as  to  the  use  of  relative  numbers.  The  per  cent  of 
increase  or  decrease  from  one  year  to  another  is  not  the  difference  between  the  rela- 
tive numbers  for  the  years.  Thus,  in  the  table  above,  the  relative  rate  of  wages  per 
hour  increased  from  86  in  1911  to  100  in  1913,  an  increase  in  the  relative  of  14  over 
the  relative  86,  making  an  increase  of  16.3  per  cent. 

The  average  rates  of  earnings  per  hour  in  the  specified  occupations 
in  the  seven  specified  cities,  as  shown  in  the  preceding  tables,  are  also 
shown  in  the  following  condensed  table,  in  which  the  average  earn- 
ings in  each  occupation  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  cities,  with  the 
highest  averages  at  the  top  and  the  lowest  at  the  bottom. 


1 1^ 


/ 


■•v"'"*^ 


i 


f        * 


\ ' 


N 


Table  47. — Average  Rate  op  Earnings  Per  Hour,  by  Occupations  and  by 
Cities,  in  1913,  Arranged  in  Order  op  Highest  to  Lowest  Average  Rate 
Per  Hour. 

(Compiled  from  reports  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  statistics.] 


Occupation,  sex,  and  city. 

Average 

rate  of 

earnings 

per  hour. 

Occupation,  sex,  and  city. 

Average 

rate  of 

earnings 

per  hour. 

MAUI. 

Cotters,  cloth,  hand: 

Boston 

$0.5576 
.4573 
.4505 
.4231 
.4196 
.3739 
.3660 

MALE-^-oontinued. 

Operators,  all: 

Bost  on 

SO.  3830 

Chicaeo 

Chicago 

.3561 

New  York 

Rochester 

.3438 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

.3308 

PhiMelphfft  , 

Cincinnati 

.2918 

Baltimore 

Philadelphia 

.2757 

Rochester.  ..                       .  .    .. 

Baltimore 

.2238 

Total 

Total 

.4355 

.3090 

Pressers,  coat: 

Chicago 

Gutters)  cloth,  machine: 

Chica^ 

.5507 
.4488 
.4181 
.3900 
.3591 
.3590 

NewYork 

Boston 

.3207 

ripninnatl                                ,  , 

New  York 

.2987 

Philadelphia 

Rochester 

.2842 

Baltimore 

Cincinnati... 

.2713 

Rochester 

Baltimore 

.2415 

Philadelphia 

.2297 

Total 

.4512 

Total 

.2878 

Fitters  or  trimmers,  coat: 

NewYork 

.3869 
.3729 
.3668 
.3635 
.3122 
.2851 
.2822 

Pressers,  pants: 

Boston 

Boston 

.3909 

Chicaeo 

Chicago 

.3430 

Rochester 

New  York 

.3139 

Philadelnhia  . 

Rochester 

.2773 

Baltimore 

Philadelphia 

.2651 

rinninnAti ,  ,    ,  ,  , 

Cincinnati 

.2350 

BaltininrA 

.2294 

Total 

.3450 

Total 

.3104 

Rasters,  coat: 

Chicago 

.3031 
.2800 
.2618 
.2614 
.2245 
.2188 
.2109 

Pressers,  vests: 

.3823 
.3164 
.3119 
.2846 
.2698 
.2695 

Boston 

yzckXB  Wf\TV 

Rochester 

New  York 

Cincinnati 

Baltim(M« 

Tlal  f  i  m  nr  a 

Philadelphia 

Total 

.2540 

.3360 

Total 

Pressers,  all: 

Boston 

Operators,  coat: 

Boston 

.3929 
.3467 
.3433 
.3228 
.2918 
.2678 
.2176 

.3399 

Chicago 

.3329 

Rochester 

NewYork 

.3026 

CUmco 

Rochester 

.2828 

NewYork ..' 

Cincinnati 

.2622 

Cincinnati 

Baltimore 

.2423 

Philadelphia 

Philadelphia 

.2392 

T^AJtimnrA 

Total 

.2950 

Total 

.2948 

Band  sewers,  coats: 

Rochester 

.3666 
.3360 
.3341 
.3024 
.2718 

.3127 

Operators,  pants: 

Boston 

NewYork 

NewYork 

Chicago 

Philaaelnhia 

.2721 
.2472 

ChioBffO 

Rochester 

Baltimore 

Philadelnhia 

Baltimore 

Total 

.1046 
.2564 

Total 

.3253 

Examiners,  shop  and  stock  room: 
Rochester 

.3449 

Boston      .....      ...  . 

3364 

Operators,  vest: 

Chicago 

.4286 
.3795 
.3641 
.2420 

Cincinnati 

.3248 

Chicago 

.3114 

Philadelphia 

NewYork 

.3040 

NewYork 

Philadelphia 

.2626 

Bftltlmnre  , 

Baltimore 

.2619 

Total 

Total 

.3627 

.2978 

■h'l 


•  Jl 


218 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


Table  47. — Average  Rate  op  Earnings  Per  Hour,  by  Occupations  and  by 
Cities,  in  1913,  Arranged  in  Order  op  Highest  to  Lowest  Average  Rate 
Pj:r  Hour — Continued. 


Occupation,  sex,  and  city. 


MALE— cont  inued. 

Bushelers  and  tailors: 

Rochester 

New  York , 

Chicago 

Cincimiati 

Baltimore 

Philadelphia 


Total. 


lEMALE. 


.\verage 

rate  of 

earnings 

per  hour. 


JO.  3058 
.2774 
.2744 
.2712 
.2532 
.2258 


.2683 


Basters,coat: 

Chicago 

Rochester 

Cincinnati.... 
Philadelphia. 

Boston 

New  York... 
Baltimore 


Total. 


Basters,  pants: 

Boston 

Chicago 

New  York... 

Baltimore 

Philadelphia. 


Total- 


Basters,  vest: 

Chicago 

Philadelphia. 
New  York.... 
Baltimwe 


Total. 


SO.  2254 
.2239 
.1783 
.1641 
.1606 
.1564 
.1345 


1843 


,2137 
.1699 
.1684 
.1632 
.1365 


1659 


.2385 
.2110 
.1943 
.1409 


.2041 


Basters.  all: 

Rochester 

Chicago 

Boston 

Cincinnati 

New  York . . . 
Philadelphia. 
Baltimore 


Total. 


Operators,  coat: 

Chicago 

Roch^ter.... 
Cincinnati — 
Philadelphia. 
New  York . . . 

Boston 

Baltimore 


.2239 
.2210 
.1783 
.1783 
.1731 
.1704 
.1357 


,1857 


Total. 


Operators,  pants: 

Chicago 

New  York . . . 
Rochester.... 
Cincinnati.... 


.2233 
.2073 
.1831 
.1708 
.1707 
.1583 
.1512 


.1989 


Occupation,  sex,  and  city. 


ncM  ALE— cont  inued. 

Operators,  pants— Continued. 

Boston 

Philadelphia 

Baltim(x^e 


Total. 


Average 

rate  of 

earnings 

per  hour. 


iai707 
.1525 
.1461 


2019 


Operators,  vest: 

Chicago 

Rochester... 
New  York.. 
Cincinnati.. 
Baltimore... 


.2723 
.2394 
.2322 
.1526 
.1381 


Total. 


.2364 


Operators,  all: 

Chicago 

Rochester.... 

New  York 

Cincinnati 

Boston 

Philadelphia. 
Baltimore 


.2313 
.2164 
.2086 
.1836 
.1645 
.1616 
.1472 


;V 


Total. 


.2065 


.2218 
.2212 
.2050 
.1970 


Hand  sewers,  coat: 

Rochester 

Chicago 

Philadelphia... 

New  York 

Boston 

Baltimore 

Cincinnati 


Total. 


— «*»^^ 


.1926 
.1924 
.1748 
.1697 
.1649 
.1608 
.1604 


.1776 


Hand  sewers,  pants: 

Rochester 

Cinciimati 

Chicago 

Baltimore 

New  York 

Boston 

Philadelphia... 


Total. 


Hand  sewers,  vest: 

Chicago 

New  York 

Rochester 

Philadelphia.. 

Cincinnati 

Baltimore 


Total. 


Hand  sewers,  all: 

Chicago 

Rochester 

New  York . . . 
Philadelphia. 

Boston 

Cincinnati.... 
Baltimore.... 


Total. 


.1751 
.1705 
.1673 
.1618 
.1547 
.1511 
.1309 


.1633 


.2089 
.1928 
.1826 
.1758 
.1369 
.1307 


^ 


.1921 


.1881 
.1871 
.1700 
.1675 
.1615 

•  \%WKr9 

.1570 


.1767 


Reference  to  this  table  will  show  that  the  average  earning  per 
hour  of  the  males  in  most  of  the  specified  occupations  were  highest 
in  Boston,  New  York,  Rochester,  and  Chicago,  and  those  of  the 
females  were  highest  in  Rochester  and  Chicago. 


■ 


CHAPTER  VI. 
COST-FINDING  AND  ACCOUNTING  CONDITIONS. 

Mr.  David  Kirschbaum,  who  was  elected  president  of  the  National 
Association  of  Clothiers,  at  its  convention  in  1915,  delivered  to  the 
convention  an  address  on  "Evil  Tendencies  in  American  Trade," 
in  which  he  said: 

Industrial  experience  shows  as  many  failures  due  to  deep  price  cutting  as  to  any 
other  cause.  Unfortunately,  these  price  concessions,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  are  not 
based  on  exact  knowledge  as  to  cost,  and  this  has  been  so  generally  true  that  in 
many  industries  the  trade  associations  have  found  it  well  worth  while  to  educate  the 
members  of  their  associations  as  to  the  exact  methods  of  figuring  costs. 

I  haven't  the  least  doubt  that  it  would  pay  the  National  Association  of  Clothiers  to 
employ  or  recommend  a  thoroughly  expert  manufacturing  cost  accountant,  whose 
services  would  be  at  the  call  of  the  individual  members,  and  who,  at  a  nominal  cost, 
would  render  an  invaluable  servic3  to  them  and  to  the  entire  association.  Possibly  no 
industry  in  the  United  States  has  more  manufacturers  that  have  so  little  knowledge  ot 
correct  cost  accounting  as  the  manufacture  of  clothing.  1  trust  the  subject  will 
appeal  to  the  national  board  as  important  enough  to  take  up  for  serious  consideration, 
•nie  idea  of  helping  your  competitors  to  figure  costs  correctly  is  not  new,  as  stated. 
It  is  being  done  in  various  lines  with  most  satisfactory  results. 

While  some  of  the  largest  clothing  houses  have  endeavored  to 
institute  accurate  cost-finding  systems,  the  trade  has  a  general  tend- 
ency to  regard  keeping  costs  as  of  minor  importance.  In  most 
instances  the  costs  are  handled  by  the  bookkeeper,  who  usually  is  not 
familiar  with  cost  finding.  Many  concerns  satisfy  their  cost  curi- 
osity by  having  a  certified  public  accountant  draw  up  a  trial  balance 
once  or  twice  a  year.  These  trial  balances,  if  they  show  a  profit,  are 
usually  relegated  to  some  drawer  and  are  used  onlv  to  furnish  the 
bank  and  creditors  with  figures.  In  reality  the  work  of  the  certified 
accountant  is  not  to  find  cost,  but  to  check  up  the  bookkeeper  and 
secure  figures  to  be  used  in  getting  credit. 

As  goods  are  usually  sold  months  before  they  are  manufactured, 
the  detennination  of  a  seUing  price  lon^  before  the  goods  are  made 
up  is  essential.  Therefore,  cost  keeping  is  of  utmost  importance.  In 
order  to  determine  a  seUing  price  that  wiU  net  a  profit  there  should 
be  an  estimated  cost,  based  on  accurate,  reliable,  recorded  figures  of 
the  preceding  year,  with  allowances  made,  where  possible,  lor  such 
deviations  from  last  year's  business  as  the  manufacturer  can  accu- 
rately determine.  Together  with  this  estimated  cost  there  should 
be  the  actual  cost,  week  by  week,  to  check  up  the  estimated  cost  and 
find  wherein  the  estimated  cost  is  incorrect.  The  actual  cost  will 
determine  where  adjustments  are  to  be  made,  which  styles  should 
be  pushed  and  which  discarded. 

The  method  of  most  manufacturers  of  '^figuring  back"  is  a  good 
one  if  the  component  elements  are  accurately  known.  Retailers 
wishing  to  sell  a  suit  for  $20  will  not  pay  the  wholesaler  more  than 
$13.50  for  it.  Because  of  this  fact,  manufacturers,  instead  of  creating 
a  garment,  calculating  their  cost,  and  adding  a  profit  to  determine 
the  selling  price,  start  with  the  selling  price,  which  determines  the 
price  of  cloth  and  the  kind  of  workmanship.     For  a  $13.50  suit  the 

219 


220 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


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221 


■  1 


manufacturer  will  determine  that  the  best  cloth  he  can  put  in  will 
cost,  let  us  say,  $1.25  a  yard,  the  direct  labor  must  not  cost  more 
than  $3.50,  etc. 

This  method  would  be  satisfactory  if  the  manufacturer  knew  accu- 
rately what  his  indirect  labor  ana  complete  overhead  charges  are, 
but  in  most  instances  these  costs  are  only  estimates.  In  most  cases 
there  is  no  proper  distribution  of  expense.  Indirect  labor  is  often 
included  with  airect  labor,  what  one  manufacturer  classes  as  over- 
head another  will  consider  profit,  and  the  general  expense  usually 
includes  every  variety  of  overhead  cost.  The  yardage  in  a  garment 
is  usually  an  average;  discoimts  received  and  allowed  are  often  con- 
sidered to  take  care  of  each  other,  though  investigation  will  show 
that  in  most  instances  the  total  discount  allowed  K>r  any  period  is 
much  larger  than  the  discount  received. 

SIMPLIFIED  COST  ACCOUNTINQ.o 

The  object  of  conducting  business  is  to  secure  profits.  Nothing 
that  relates  to  manufacturing  is  of  more  importance  than  "costing." 
Efficiency  rules  may  be  applied  in  an  excellently  equipped  factory, 
but,  unless  the  proprietor  nas  an  adequate  cost-finding  system,  he  is 
liable  to  suffer  financial  loss.  If  he  does  not  know  with  a  close  degree 
of  accuracy  what  the  different  articles  he  manufactures  have  cost 
and  at  what  prices  he  can  afford  to  sell  them,  he  is  not  in  a  position 
to  meet  competition  intelligently,  and  he  invites  business  aisaster. 
Under  conditions  as  they  existed  formerly,  he  may  have  been  satisfied 
with  the  profit  earned  on  his  whole  line  of  products,  as  shown  by  his 
annual  balance  sheet,  but  in  these  days  there  is  the  keenest  competi- 
tion in  almost  every  line  of  manufacturing,  and  the  survival  ol  the 
fittest  is  the  inexorable  law  of  the  business  world.  Even  if  a  manu- 
facturer is  satisfied  with  his  yearly  profit,  which  his  balance  sheet 
shows,  he  should  know  on  which  particular  products  he  is  making  the 
most  profit  and  on  which  he  is  making  only  a  narrow  margm  of 
profit  or  losing  money.  Intelligent  costing  would  enable  him  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  profits  on  different  products,  to  discontinue 
the  manufacture  of  products  sold  at  a  loss,  to  limit  the  sales  of  prod- 
ucts on  a  small  margin  of  profit,  and  to  give  more  attention  to  the 
manufacture  and  marketing  of  products  on  which  the  largest  profits 
are  realized. 

Cost  accounting  is  especially  important  for  manufacturers  with 
small  or  comparatively  small  captial,  in  order  that  they  may  meet 
the  severe  competition  of  those  who  manufacture  on  an  extensive 
scale.  As  a  rule,  the  large  manufacturers  have  not  only  the  most 
improved  machinery  and  most  efficient  methods  of  production,  but 
also  very  accurate  cost-finding  systems. 

The  comparatively  small  manufacturers  have  not  been  so  slow  in 
equipping  their  factories  with  up-to-date  machinery  and  in  adopting 
efnciency  rules  as  they  have  been  in  planning  a  system  by  which  they 
could  know  the  actual  costs  of  their  different  units  oi  production. 
Any  investigation  of  this  matter  which  may  be  made  will  show  that 
an  amazing  number  of  American  manufacturers  have  practically  no 
costing  system,  or  only  the  crudest  sorts  of  systems. 

a  This  section,  written  by  Walter  B.  Palmer,  special  agent  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic 
Commerce,  appeared  in  the  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Septem* 
ber,  1915,  pp.  165-173. 


•.V 


■■'♦tl^"  • 


^ 


A 


A' 


V 


Most  manufacturers  know  the  cost  of  materials  and  the  direct  labor 
cost  for  each  unit  of  production,  but  do  not  intelligently  distribute 
the  general  expenses,  or  "burden  "  or,  as  it  is  commonly  termed,  the 
"overhead.''  Many  of  them  add  to  the  material  and  labor  cost  for 
each  unit  what  they  think,  judging  from  past  experience,  the  charge 
for  overhead  should  be,  and  fix  prices  accordingly,  but  if  they  manu- 
facture any  variety  of  products,  such  guessworK  will  surely  lead  to  a 
diminution  of  profits  or  to  financial  loss. 

In  recent  years  the  profession  of  cost  accounting  has  developed, 
but  the  small  manufacturers,  constituting  much  the  larger  numlber, 
have  been  much  more  backward  than  the  large  producers  in  adopting 
the  methods  of  this  branch  of  efficiency.  They  complain  of  the  fierce- 
ness of  competition,  yet  do  not  avail  themselves  of  a  costing  system 
that  would  show  on  which  articles  they  could  meet  competition  and 
on  which  they  could  not.  Perhaps  the  principal  reason  for  this  back- 
wardness on  the  part  of  the  small  manufacturers  is  that  they  think 
they  can  not  afford  to  pay  the  fees  which  are  charged  by  efficiency 
experts  for  installing  cost-accounting  systems.  A  simple,  mexpensive 
and  yet  accurate  costing  system  is  one  of  the  crying  needs  of  the  small 
manufacturers  to-day.  Uegardless  of  the  expense  of  the  installation 
of  a  scientific  system  by  professional  cost  accountants,  some  of  the 
systems  are  so  complicated  as  to  preclude  their  general  use,  because 
tney  are  beyond  the  grasp  of  the  ordinary  small  manufacturer. 

Many  small  manufacturers  employ  as  bookkeepers  men,  and  often 
girls,  whose  accounting  experience  is  so  limited  that  they  can  scarcely 
prepare  a  profit  and  loss  statement  or  an  annual  balance  sheet,  and 
who  woula  be  utterly  unable  to  figure  out  an  elaborate  system  of 
costmg.  And  yet,  simple,  practicable  systems  can  be  adopted  which 
come  within  the  comprehension  of  inexperienced  bookkeepers,  and  by 
means  of  which  a  satisfactory  knowledge  of  the  costs  of  different 
products  can  be  obtained. 

There  are  two  elements  of  cost — raw  materials  and  direct  labor — 
which  can  be  ascertained  for  different  units  with  close  accuracy, 
and  these  are  usually  the  largest  elements.  Almost  any  manufacturer 
knows  just  how  much  raw  material  is  used  in  any  unit,  and  knows  the 
cost  of  the  direct  labor.  If  he  pays  his  employees  on  the  piece-price 
basis,  he  knows  the  cost  of  the  direct  labor  per  unit  exactly.  If  the 
direct  labor,  or  part  of  it,  is  paid  on  the  time-rate  basis,  he  generally 
knows,  from  records  of  production,  the  average  time  required  by  his 
employees  to  produce  a  certain  unit.  Knowing  the  cost  for  materials 
ana  for  direct  labor^  the  problem  is  to  find  the  proper  burden  for 
general  expenses  to  apportion  to  each  different  unit.  This  is  the  great 
stumbling  block  in  the  way  of  a  large  number  of  manufacturers. 

There  are  three  systems  of  costing,  all  of  them  simple,  which  are 
more  or  less  used.  They  may  be  designated  the  quantity  method,  the 
direct-labor  method,  and  the  prime-cost  method. 

THE  QUANTITY  METHOD. 

By  this  method  the  total  general  expense  during  the  preceding 
business  period — that  is,  all  expense  except  for  raw  materials  and 
direct  labor — is  divided  by  the  number  of  units  produced,  and  the 


\ 


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COST-FINDING  AND  ACCOUNTING   CONDITIONS. 


223 


quotient  is  added  to  the  cost  of  materials  and  direct  labor  for  each 
unit.    This  may  be  expressed  as  follows: 

Burden,  last  period  .  ^    /  u  _j 

TT* — i 7-^ — 7—-^- — J J = Amount  of  burden  per  unit. 

Number  of  units  produced  '^ 

If,  for  instance,  during  the  last  period  the  entire  cost  of  manufac- 
turing and  selUng  were  $100,000,  and  the  raw  materials  cost  $50,000, 
and  the  direct  labor  $30,000,  the  burden  amounted  to  $20,000.  If, 
therefore,  10,000  units  were  produced  during  that  period,  the  burden 
for  each  would  be  $2.  Of  course,  the  amount  for  raw  materials  used 
in  the  computation  must  be  the  amount  actually  used  during  the  last 
business  period,  and  not  the  amount  purchased,  which  may  be  more 
or  less,  and  this  requires  that  there  should  be  inventories  of  raw 
materials  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  period.  The  account  for 
raw  materials — that  is,  materials  used  in  the  unit — should  be  kept 
distinct  from  factory  supplies. 

This  method  of  costing  is  the  simplest  of  all  methods,  and  where 
only  one  kind  of  goods  is  manufactured  it  is  the  most  accurate  of  all 
systems.  A  concern  that  manufactures  only  one  kind  of  typewriter, 
for  instance,  would  not  need  a  more  perfect  system,  but  oDviously 
this  method  is  very  defective  if  appUed  in  a  factory  where  goods  of 
varying  values  are  produced. 

THE   DIRECT-LABOR  METHOD. 

By  this  method  the  burden  charge  is  made  on  the  basis  of  the  cost 
of  the  direct  labor  for  the  unit,  in  the  proportion  of  the  total  cost  of 
direct  labor  to  the  total  amount  of  burden  during  the  preceding  period. 
This  may  be  expressed  as  follows: 

Burden,  last  period     t,  *    *  u  _j  •* 

-tt: — -T^r ri=Per  cent  of  burden  per  unit. 

Direct  labor  pay  roll  '^ 

If  during  the  last  period  the  total  direct-labor  cost  amounted  to 
$30,000,  and  the  burden  to  $20,000,  a  charge  of  66.67  per  cent  of  the 
direct-labor  cost  of  the  unit  should  be  made  for  burden;  that  is, 
should  be  added  to  the  cost  of  materials  and  direct  labor  for  the  unit. 

Where  units  are  produced  which  differ  in  labor  cost,  this  method  is 
much  more  accurate  than  the  quantity  method,  but  it  is  defective 
where  raw  materials  of  different  values  are  used  in  different  units, 
for  the  reason  that  under  it  the  more  expensive  grades  of  goods  would 
not  carry  their  proper  proportion  of  burden. 

THE   PRIME-COST   METHOD. 

By  prime  cost  is  meant  the  sum  of  the  cost  of  raw  materials  and  of 
direct  labor.  By  this  method  the  burden  charge  is  made  on  the  basis 
of  the  sum  of  the  cost  of  raw  materials  and  direct  labor  for  the  unit, 
in  the  proportion  of  the  total  cost  of  raw  materials  and  direct  labor  to 
the  total  amoimt  of  burden  during  the  preceding  period.  This  may 
be  expressed  as  follows: 

« Biirden  1^  period ^^_p^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^        ^.^ 

Raw  materials  plus  direct-labor  pay  roll 


V 


.k 


-< 


^ 


'1 


^ 


If  during  the  last  period  the  cost  of  raw  materials  amounted  to 
$50,000,  the  cost  of  direct  labor  to  $30,000,  a  total  of  $80,000, 
and  the  burden  amounted  to  $20,000,  a  charge  of  25  per  cent 
($20,000 -^  $80,000)  of  the  prime  cost  of  the  unit  would  be  made  for 
the  burden,  that  is,  should  be  added  to  the  prime  cost. 

This  method  provides  for  the  distribution  of  the  burden  on  the 
unit  much  more  accurately  than  the  quantity  method,  where  materials 
of  different  values  are  used  in  different  units,  or  where  more  labor  is 
employed  on  some  units  than  on  others;  and  this  method  is  more 
accurate  than  the  direct-labor  method,  where  materials  of  different 
values  are  used.  In  costing  by  any  method  a  charge  should  be  made 
against  the  cost  of  the  unit  to  cover  the  average  loss  from  waste  and 
seconds. 

Any  of  the  three  methods  which  have  been  described  is  easy  of 
application,  even  by  clerks  who  have  little  accounting  experience. 
Another  method  is,  however,  recommended  as  more  accurate  and 
nearly  as  simple.  For  want  of  a  better  designation  it  may  be  termed 
the  'Siual  method." 

THE  DUAL  METHOD. 

The  prime-cost  method  is  accurate  for  computing  the  burden  on 
units  which  vary  in  the  cost  of  materials  and  the  cost  of  labor  only 
when  during  the  last  business  period  the  value  of  the  products  equaled 
the  amount  of  the  net  sales.  There  would  be  an  inaccuracy  if  the  net 
sales  amounted  to  more  or  less  than  the  production,  because  the  bur- 
den for  the  cost  to  sell  should  be  computed  on  the  amount  of  the  net 
sales  and  not  on  the  production. 

By  the  dual  method  the  ratio  of  burden  for  the  unit  is  computed  on 
the  prime  cost,  during  the  preceding  period,  for  indirect  labor  and  for 
factory  expense,  because  these  portions  of  the  burden  are  related  to 
the  amount  of  the  production,  but  the  selling  expense  is  computed  not 
on  the  amount  of  production  but  on  the  amount  of  the  net  sales.  The 
ratio  of  burden  for  administrative  expense  is  also  computed  on  the 
amount  of  net  sales  as  the  base,  because  administrative  expense  is 
perhaps  more  nearly  related  te  the  amount  of  net  sales  than  to  the 
value  of  the  production,  though  this  may  differ  in  different  industries. 

If,  for  example,  the  expenses  during  the  last  period  were  $50,000 
for  raw  materials,  $30,000  for  direct  labor,  $4,000  for  indirect  labor, 
$3,000  for  factory  expense,  $6,000  for  administrative  expense,  and 
$7,000  for  seUing  expense,  making  a  total  of  $100,000,  but  if  the  net 
sales  amounted  to  $110,000,  the  percentage  of  burden  for  the  imit 
would  be  computed  as  shown  in  tne  following  illustration: 

Expenses,  last  period: 

Raw  materials $50, 000 

Directlabor 30,000 

Prime  cost 80,  000       Per  cent  of  burden  for  unit. 

Indirect  labor 4,000  5. 00  ($4, 000^180, 000). 

Factory  expense 3,000  3. 75  ($3, 000-4-$80, 000). 

Administrative  expense 6, 000  5. 45  ($6, 000^$110, 000). 

Selling  expense 7, 000  6. 36  ($7, 000-5-$110, 000). 

Total 100,000 

Netsales 110,000 


I 


A, 


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MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


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♦» 


These  percentages  are  used  to  find  the  burden  for  a  unit  which  is 
intended  to  be  sold  at  $10,  for  instance,  and  the  cost  of  which  for 
raw  materials  was  $4.25  and  for  direct  labor  $2.55,  as  illustrated 
below: 

Raw  materials $4. 25 

Direct  labor 2.55 

Primecost 6.80 

Indirect  labor 34  ^5  per  cent  of  $6.80). 

Factory  expense 255  (3.75  per  cent  of  $6.80). 

Administrative  expense 545  (5.45  per  cent  of  $10). 

Selling  expense 636  ^6.36  per  cent  of  $10). 

Waste 043  (e.  g.,  1  per  cent  of  $4.25J. 

Seconds 068  (e.  g.,  1  per  cent  of  $6.80). 

Total  cost 8.69 

Profit 1.31      (13.1  per  cent  of  $10). 

Selling  price 10. 00 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  most  goods  are  manufactured  to  sell  at  certain 
prices,  which  are  determined  in  advance,  and  if  the  specifications  for 
raw  material  and  for  labor  are  foimd  to  be  too  high  to  allow  a  fair 
profit  at  the  determined  price,  cheaper  material  or  less  labor  is  used. 

The  dual  method  may  be  varied  by  basing  the  percontage  of  burden 
for  indirect  labor  and  factorj^  expense  on  the  direct  labor-cost  in- 
stead of  the  prime  cost,  and  it  is  claimed  that  for  some  industries, 
where  the  materials  used  differ  but  little  in  cost  per  unit,  this  modified 
method  is  more  satisfactory. 

In  order  to  compute  the  burden  by  the  dual  method,  accounts 
should  be  kept  for  the  foregoing  mentioned  items,  and  they  may  be 
subdivided  as  follows: 

Raw  materials. 
Direct  labor: 

Wage?  of  all  employees  in  manufacturing  occupations. 

Paid  to  contractors. 

Paid  to  home  workers. 
Total  direct  labor. 
Indirect  labor: 

Salaries  of  officials,  chargeable  to  manufacturing. 

Wages  of  factory  superintendent  and  foremen. 

Wages  of  designers. 

Wages  of  employees  in  sample  department. 

Wages  of  other  general  help — macjiinist,  clerks  in  factory  (not  general  office),  floor 
boys  and  girls,  etc.  (not  Including  engineer  and  fireman). 
Total  indirect  labor. 
Factory  expense:  . 

Rent  ol  space  used  for  manufacturing  and  shipping  departments. 

Power,  heat  (or  fuel  and  wages  of  engineer  and  fireman),  light,  and  water. 

Repairs  on  equipment. 

Depreciation  of  equipment. 

Fire  insurance. 

Workmen's  compensation  or  employers'  liability. 

Welfare  work. 

State,  county,  township,  and  municipal  taxes. 

Other  factory  expense. 
Total  factor>r  expense. 
Gost  of  administration: 

Salaries  of  officials,  not  chargeable  to  indirect  labor  or  cost  to  sell. 

Salaries  of  general  office  force  and  auditor. 

Rent  of  general  office. 

Office  supplies,  stationery,  postage,  tel^rams,  telephones. 

Insurance — other  kinds  than  fire. 


V 


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COST-FINDING  AND  ACCOUNTING   CONDITIONS.  225 

Cost  of  administration — Continued, 

Expense  of  collection  and  legal  service. 

Bad  debts. 

Corporation  tax. 

Other  administrative  expyense. 
Total  cost  of  administration. 
Cost  to  sell: 

Salaries  of  officials,  chargeable  to  sales  department. 

Salaries,  commissions,  traveling,  and  general  expense  of  salesmen. 

Wages  of  other  employees  in  saQes  department. 

Rent  of  showroom. 

Packing  materials. 

Cartage  and  freight  outward. 

Advertising. 

Other  selling  expense. 
Total  selling  expense. 
Waste  and  seconds: 

Loss  from  waste. 

Loss  from  seconds. 
Total. 

Such  accounts  can  be  kept  very  easily,  if  a  specially  ruled  book  is 
used.  Some  of  the  items  under  factory  expense  might  not  improperly 
be  entered  under  cost  of  administration,  their  placement  being  a  mat- 
ter of  opinion,  but  as  these  items  are  usually  small,  the  result  in 
computing  the  burden  on  a  unit  would  be  little,  if  any,  affected  by  a 
transfer  oi  them  from  one  account  to  another. 

In  computing  the  proportion  of  burden  for  the  unit  on  the  basis  of 
production  and  net  sales  during  the  preceding  business  period,  the 
results  would  be  more  accurate  if  the  profit  and  loss  statement  were 
made  semiannually  instead  of  annually,  and  still  more  accurate  if 
such  a  statenaent  were  made  quarterly.  In  making  computations  by 
any  method  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  cost  of  materials 
and  direct  labor,  while  usually  the  largest  elements  of  cost,  are  those 
which  are  most  liable  to  fluctuation,  and  in  calculating  the  burden  on 
the  basis  of  the  last  period,  the  differences  in  the  cost  of  materials  and 
direct  labor  at  that  time  and  at  the  time  the  computation  is  made 
should  be  taken  into  consideration. 

When  a  manufacturer  gets  out  new  styles  he  must  be  particularly 
careful  in  costing  if  all  or  any  part  of  the  direct  labor  is  paid  on  the 
time-rate  basis.  In  making  up  samples  for  salesmen  to  take  out  on 
the  road  he  should  make  time  studies  of  the  several  direct-labor  oper- 
ations to  ascertain  as  nearly  as  possible  the  direct-labor  cost  per 
unit.  When  the  goods  to  fill  the  first  orders  received  are  manufac- 
tured, he  should  check  up  his  first  computation  by  the  cost  to  manu- 
facture in  quantities,  and  if  there  is  a  difference,  he  should  adjust  the 
selling  price  per  unit  accordingly.  If  it  should  happen  that  his  price 
for  goods  of  a  certain  style,  as  given  to  the  salesmen,  is  too  low  to 
afford  a  profit,  the  earlier  he  checks  up  his  first  calculation  of  the  cost 
for  that  style  the  less  money  he  will  lose. 

While  all  of  the  methods  of  costing  which  have  been  described  are 
comparatively  simple  and  inexpensive,  and  while  for  most  factories 
one  of  these  methods  would  be  found  entirely  practicable  and  satis- 
factory, it  is  not  claimed  that  for  a  highly  organized  factory,  with 
many  departments,  any  of  these  methods  would  be  as  accurate  as 
one  which  would  be  adapted  to  the  particular  needs  of  the  plant, 
and  which  might  be  devised  by  cost-accounting  experts  after  a  com- 
plete, careful  study  of  the  factory  conditions. 
UGH**— 16 15 


^ 


226 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


In  a  highly  organized  establishment  the  departmental  method  of 
apportionmg  burden  shoidd  be  adopted.  Certain  burden  charges 
should  be  made  against  the  whole  production  of  the  factory,  certain 
charges  against  the  production  of  particular  departments  only,  and 
other  charges  in  part  against  the  production  of  the  whole  factory 
and  in  part  against  the  production  of  particular  departments.  If  a 
cotton  mill,  for  instance,  sells  both  yam  and  cloth,  the  factory  expense 
for  the  weave  room  or  for  the  cost  of  indirect  labor  in  that  room 
should  not  be  made  a  part  of  the  burden  on  the  product  of  the  spin- 
ning room.  In  a  printing  plant  the  product  that  is  printed  only 
should  not  be  charged  witn  the  expense  for  the  bindery  department. 

ACCOUNTINQ  CONDITIONS. 

The  following  table  indicates  the  character  of  factory  manage- 
ment, the  frequency  with  which  inventories  are  taken,  and  other 
data  in  the  establishments  that  were  visited  by  the  agents  of  the  Bu- 
reau during  this  investigation.  The  data  regarding  the  method  of 
apportioning  overhead  in  computing  the  costs  of  units  and  the  data 
regarding  the  frequency  of  inventory  taking  are  presented  as  they 
were  reported  by  the  estabhshments.  The  statements  regarding 
accountmg  methods  were  made  by  the  agents  themselves  and  were 
based  on  meir  own  observations. 

Table  48. — Cost-Finding  and  Accounting  Methods. 

GROUP  I.-NO  OPERATING  CONTRACTED  (8  ESTABLISHMENTS,  4  NOT  REPORTED). 


Methods  of  apportioning  overhead. 


Prime-cost  method. 
Do 


Do. 


Total  expense  per  week  for  each  depart- 
ment K  divided  by  the  number  of 
garments  produced,  and  each  garment 
Is  chargeci  with  its  share  of  expense. 
This  plant  malces  practically  only  2 
kinds  of  suits  and  2  kinds  of  overcoats, 
and  employs  about  the  same  force  all 
the  year. 


Other  accounting  conditions. 


Good. 


Has  ledger  accounts  for  lal)or,  rent, 
power,  taxes,  insurance,  freight  in, 
freight  out,  stable,  traveling  expense, 
disrount,  interest,  returns,  collectton 
charges,  office,  bad  debts,  and  other 
items  which  are  brought  directly  in- 
to the  profit  and  loss  statement 

Fair.  The  main  items  are  included  in 
general  expense. 


Good. 


Notr^MMTted 

Unit  costs  are  computed  on  sales  instead 
of  the  product 


Quantity  method. 


Shop  and  manufocturing  overhead  are 
found  by  dividing  the  average  weekly 
expense  by  the  average  weekly  pro- 
duction. General  overhead  is  com- 
puted oa  the  basis  of  net  sales. 


.do. 


An  auditing  concern  each  year  makes 
analyses  of  cost  and  of  profit  and  loss. 


A  daily  record  of  productton  and  cost  is 
kept.  An  accounting  concern  each 
year  makes  analyses  of  cost  and  of 
pn^t  and  loss. 


Frequency  of  raw 
material  and  geo* 
eral  inventories. 


AnnuaL 
Da 


Semiannual. 


AnnuaL 


Not  reported. 


Da 

Perpetual  physical 
semiannual  general 
inventory. 

Semiannual 


AnnuaL 


.^ 


> 


•'  r 


: 


/ 


rl 


COST-FINDING   AND  ACCOUNTING   CONDITIONS. 


227 


Table  48. — Cost-Finding  and  Accounting  Methods — Continued. 

GROUP  n.— PART  OPERATING  CONTRACTED  (27  ESTABLISHMENTS,  3  NOT  REPORTED). 


Methods  of  apportioning  overhead. 


It  Is  estimated  that  the  cost  of  raw  ma- 
terial and  direct  labor  does  not  exceed 
66i  per  cent  of  the  gross  selling  price. 
The  cost  of  direct  labor  is  ascertained 
bv  dividing  the  monthly  summaries 
ohabor  pay  rolls  of  departments  by  the 
production  of  the  departments. 

A  theoretical  per  cent  is  added  for  over- 
head. 


Prime-cost  method. 


Cutting  room  and  shop  expenses  ap- 
portioned by  the  quantity  method. 


Prime-cost  method. 


Other  accounting  conditions. 


10  pw  cent  is  added  to  the  prime  cost  for 
factory  burden.  An  arbitrary  per  cent 
is  added  also  for  selling  cost 

On  the  basis  of  gross  sales  for  the  past 
year,  and  the  gross  selling  price  of  the 
unit 


Not  reported. 


Shop  expense  is  distributed  by  the  quan- 
tity method.  General  overhead  is  ap- 
ptMTtloned  by  a  system  not  explained. 

Ten  per  cent  Is  added  to  the  gross  cost 
of  uie  unit 

12  per  cent  for  factory  and  8  per  cent  for 
selling  expense  are  added;  based  on 
the  selling  price  of  unit 


Departmental  method. 


Not  r^wrted. 


The  rate  for  manufacturing  overhead  Is 
found  by  dividing  the  total  general 
expense  for  the  year  by  the  value  of 
the  product.  For  other  overUead  10 
per  cent  is  added. 


Not  reported. 


Prime-cost  method. 


16  per  cent  added  to  the  prime  cost. 


Inadequate.  Items  are  condensed  Into 
a  merchandise  account,  which  con- 
tains manufacturing  cost,  interest,  and 
discount,  and  a  |;eneral  expense  ac- 
count, which  covers  so  varied  a  list  of 
expense  items  that  accurate  data  were 
difficult  to  obtain. 


Not  reported. 


An  auditing  company  makes  a  thorough 
audit  each  year. 

A  great  many  items  are  bunched  under 
"General  "expense,"  such  as  rents, 
office  expense,  pay  rolls,  salaries  of 
salesmen,  packing,  etc.  The  distribu- 
tion of  costs  for  various  materials  used 
in  the  garments  is  good. 

The  gmeral  ledger  has  a  fine  classifica- 
tion of  accounts,  and  from  it  can  easily 
be  procured  statements  showing  act- 
ual conditions.  The  management  can 
tell  at  4  o'clock  every  evenmg  exactly 
what  each  department  is  doing,  as 
compared  with  a  set  standard. 

Has  excellent  cost  record,  but  the  gen- 
eral books  of  account  are  not  wdl  do- 
signed  to  show  important  information. 


Good. 


The  general  bookkeeping  system  is  very 
much  out  of  date;  ledger  accounts  are 
too  condensed  to  be  useful  for  prac- 
tical purposes. 

No  great  detail  Ls  k^t  and  accounts  re- 
quire much  analysis. 


Not  reported. 


Good.    Much  better  than  the  cost-find- 
ing system. 


Unusually  good. 


General  accounts  are  too  condensed. 
Merchandise  account  covers  every- 
thing relating  to  the  debit  or  credit  or 
sales  of  material. 


Good  accounting  system. 


Modem  accounting  method.  A  very 
efficient  concon  Doth  in  manufactur- 
iag  and  office. 


Very  good  system  of  bookkeeping. 


Has  a  good  general  bookkeeping  system, 
with  a  wkle  classification  of  accounts. 


Frequency  of  raw 
material  and  gen- 
eral inventories. 


Annual 


SemiannaaL 

AnnuaL 

SemiaoiuiaL 


AnnuaL 


Da 


Annual  raw  ma- 
terlal;  perpetual 
genwal. 

AnnuaL 


Da 

Da 
Do. 


Perpetual  raw  mate- 
rial; semiaimual 
genwal. 

AimuaL 


SemiannuaL 


Da 


Perpetual  raw  ma- 
terial; semiannual 
general. 


AnnuaL 


228 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


.-< 


COST-FINDING   AND  ACCOUNTING   CONDITIONS. 


229 


II 


f 

; 

. 

if 


Table  48. — Co«t-Findino  and  Ackjountino  Methods — Continued. 

GROUP  II.— PART   OPERATING    CONTRACTED    (27     ESTABLISHMENTS,    3    NOT     RE- 
PORT E  D)— Continued. 


Methods  of  apportioning  overhead. 


Primecost  method. 


Do. 


Firm  makes  one-price  garment.     The 
overhead  is  basea  on  selling  price. 

Based  on  cloth  cost,  as  the  labor  cost  on 
all  garments  is  about  the  same. 


40  per  cent  is  added  to  the  expense  for 
materials,  labor,  and  shop  overhead 
for  general  overhead  and  profit. 

Practically  no  cost-finding  system 

Direct  labor  method 

Prime  cost  method,  but  the  cost-finding 
system  is  inadequate. 

Not  repwted 

Shop  expenses  are  apportioned  on  the 
b^is  of  production  for  the  different 
shops.  To  the  cost  of  materials  and 
labor  in  the  shops,  and  other  shop  ex- 
penses, is  added  40  per  cent  for  general 
overhead  and  profit. 


Other  accounting  conditions. 


Excellent  accounting  system  employed 
in  the  office;  splendid  stock  inventory. 


Not  reported. 


Good  accounting  system. 


Experts  installed  a  cost-finding  syston, 
which  is  revised  from  time  to  time  to 
suit  changing  conditions.  An  audit- 
ing company  makes  an  audit  each 
year  and  (^ers  suggestions  io  regard 
to  changes. 

Excellent  accounting  S3rstem 

Has  a  fair  set  of  general  books  of  account 

Not  reported 

Good  general  accounts 

Excellent  aooomiting  system 

Separate  accounts  are  kept  for  many 
items  of  general  expense  which  for- 
merly were  grouped  under  one  head. 


Frequency  of  raw 
material  and  gen- 
eral inventories. 


Perpetual. 


Da 

Annual. 


Semiannual  raw  ma- 
terial; annual  gen- 
end. 


Semiannual. 

AnnuaL 
Do. 
Do. 

Not  reported. 
Semiannual. 


GROUP  in.— ALL  OPERATING  CONTRACTED  (22  ESTABLISHMENTS). 


Overhead  on  units  is  based  on  per  cent 
of  sales  during  previous  year. 

Using  the  selling  price  as  a  base,  it  is  esti- 
mated that  a  profit  can  be  made  if  the 
labor  and  material  (prime  cost)  are 
SI  .50  less  than  the  cost  of  materials  and 
labor.  Thus  ifa  suit  is  sold  at  $8,  $6.50 
worth  of  materials  is  put  into  it. 


Overhead  charges  are  not  computed  on 
units. 

For  general  ova-head  10  per  cent  of  prime 
cost  is  added ,  and  for  selling  5  per  cent, 
a  total  of  15  per  cent  of  prune  cost. 

Computed  on  the  selling  price 

18  POT  cent  is  added  to  the  prime  cost 

Prlm»<»st  method 

Do 

Do 


Poor  accounting  sjrstem 

The  classification  of  accounts  is  excellent. 
Practically  the  exact  classificatton  of 
items  of  expenditure  shown  on  the  Bu- 
reau's schedule  is  made  in  the  cash 
book,  totaled  for  the  month,  and  ac- 
cumtilated  to  the  end  of  the  period; 
each  item  being  separately  charged  off 
to  the  profit  and  loss  account  in  a  pri- 
vate ledger. 

Has  an  excellent  analysis  of  accoonts 

The  general  accounts  are  much  condensed 
and  give  little  practical  knowledge,  but 
subsidiary  records  give  a  certain 
amount  of  useful  informatfon. 

Very  good  accounting 

Accounts  are  very  much  condensed.  Ex- 
penditures are  charged  to  two  main 
ledger  accounts,  "Manufacture"  and 
"Expense." 

Good  accounting 

Poor  accounting  S3^tem 

Accounting  records  are  of  a  primitive 
character. 


Annual. 


Do. 


Do. 
Do. 

D^ 
Do. 

Do. 
Semiannual. 
Annual. 


> 


>- 


\ 


'^ 


t 


Table  48. — Cost-Finding  and  Accounting  Methods — Continued. 
GROUP  III.— ALL  OPERATING  CONTRACTED  (22  ESTABLISHMENTS)— Continued. 


Method  of  apportioning  overhead. 


Computed  on  gross  sales. 


ao  per  cent  is  added  to  the  prime  cost,  10 
per  cent  for  manufuturing,  and  10  par 
cent  for  selling. 

Computed  on  amount  of  yearly  sales 


Sales  for  the  year  are  divided  by  the  total 

expense. 
Prime-cost  method 


To  arri  ve  at  the  selling  price,  33^  per  cent 
is  added  to  the  prime  cost. 

Based  on  amount  of  year's  sales 


Baaed  <m  the  gross  selling  price. 


Prime-cost  method. . 
Use  experience  only. 


Overhead  charges  are  not  computed  on 
units. 

Percentage  of  overhead  is  found  by  di- 
viding the  general  expense  of  past  year 
by  estimated  sales. 


Prim»«ost  method. . 


Other  accounting  conditions. 


Not  reported. 
....do 


Modem  methods  are  employed  in  the 
bookkeeping  and  credit  departments. 


Good  accounting 

..-.do 

Efficient  general  bookkeeping. 


Render  a  semiannual  balance  sheet  and 
accountant's  statement. 

An  accountant  makes  an  analysis  of  the 
year's  business. 


Very  good  accounting 

Good  accounting  conditions. 
Very  good  accounting 


Not  reported. 


Has  a  well-planned  set  of  general  book- 
keeping records.  A  subsidiary  record 
gives  the  distribution  of  each  account 
m  great  detail. 


Frequency  of  raw 
material  and  gen- 
eral inventories. 


Semiannual. 
Do. 

Annual. 

Do. 

Semiannual. 
Annual. 

Semiannual. 

Annual. 

Do. 

Do. 

Semiannual. 

Annual. 
Do. 


It  will  bo  observed  that  the  favorite  method  of  computing  overhead 
charges  on  the  cost  of  units  was  the  prime-cost  method,  but  various 
other  methods  were  used,  some  of  which  were  crude  and  arbitrary. 

Of  the  59  establishments  that  reported  as  regards  the  frequency  of 
taking  inventories,  5  kept  perpetual  inventories  of  their  raw  mate- 
rial, 15  took  semiannual  inventories  of  raw  material,  and  39  took  them 
annually;  4  kept  perpetual  general  inventories,  16  took  general 
inventories  semiannually,  and  39  took  them  annually. 

Irrespective  of  the  cost-finding  methods,  the  accoimting  systems  of 
many  manufacturers  are  imperfect.  Some  establishments  have  up- 
to-date  accounting  systems,  and  some  employ  an  auditing  concern 
once  a  year  to  prepare  a  profit  and  loss  statement  and  a  balance  sheet,^ 
but  many  estaDlisnmente  have  very  poor  bookkeepers,  who  keep  the 
accounts  in  such  a  way  that  important  information  is  not  shown. 

TBUE  COSTS  AND  HOW  TO  FIGUBE  THEM.o 

"When  I  received  the  invitation  to  address  your  convention  r^arding  the  factors  that 

fo  to  make  up  true  costs  in  the  clothing  industry,  I  thought  of  some  conversations  I 
ave  had  on  this  subject  with  clothing  manufacturers.    I  have  found  a  tendency  to 
r^ard  "cost  keeping    as  a  matter  of  minor  importance  that  might  well  be  handled 

a  Read  by  Kenneth  E.  Clarke,  of  Chicago,  before  the  convention  of  the  National  Associatian  of  Clothiers 
held  at  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  June  1-2,  1914,  and  published  in  the  Manufacturing  Clothier,  officiid  organ 
of  the  National  Association  of  Clothing  Designers,  June,  1914. 


230 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


■><:^ 


COST-FINDING  AND  ACCOUNTING   CONDITIONS. 


231 


in  spare  moments  by  clerks  that  were  not  busily  en^^ed  in  checking  and  entering 
three-sheet  orders  or  in  sending  out  monthly  statements  of  accounts.  Clothing 
manufacturers  have  sometimes  told  me  that  at  best  "cost"  figures  represented  ancient 
history,  that  the  merchandise  sold  was  sold  either  at  a  profit  or  without  one,  and  that 
was  the  end  of  the  matter.  It  has  been  more  than  hinted  to  me  that  post-mortems 
were  not  the  most  pleasurable  or  profitable  activity  connected  with  the  manufacture 
and  sale  of  clothing. 

I  therefore  take  great  pleasure  in  addressing  the  members  of  your  association  upon 
this  subject,  and  I  hope  to  indicate  some  phases  of  "cost  keeping"  that  are  so  vital  to 
the  business  success  of  each  and  every  one  of  you  as  to  repay  you  in  part  for  listening 
to  what  must  be  in  some  ways  a  most  prosaic  subject. 

My  ailment  for  the  importance  of  correct  cost  keeping  in  the  clothing  industiy 
rests  upon  the  fact  that  every  dollar's  worth  of  ready-to-wear  clothing  sold  to-day  is 
sold  far  in  advance  of  its  manufacture,  and  that  the  nulling  price  of  each  lot  must  be 
determined  before  the  salesmen  go  out  each  season.  To  set  these  selling  prices  so  as 
meet  competition,  maintain  quality  in  mjuiufactured  merchandise,  ana  still  realize 
a  reasonable  profit  upon  money  invested  is  the  chief  end  of  man,  in  the  clothing 
industry  at  least. 

When  the  season's  orders  have  all  been  taken  and  manufacturing  operations  have 
commenced,  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  know  day  by  day  and  week  bjr  week 
that  your  actual  performance  is  up  to  the  efficiency  standard  set  by  your  co.^t  estimates 
upon  which  selling  prices  were  based.  I  will  grant  you  freely  that  a  cost  system 
operated  without  regard  to  estimates  or  eflficiency  standards  is  a  dead  affair,  but  in 
the  clothing  industry  at  least  your  cost  system  should  be  as  interesting  as  business 
troubles  in  a  newspaper,  and  as  up  to  date. 

Estimated  costs  show  what  you  wish  to  accomplish,  actual  costs  tell  you  what  you 
have  accomplished,  and  the  two  together  point  me  way  toward  what  may  be  done  in 
tie  future  to  eliminate  wastes,  improve  the  quality  of  merchandise,  and  add  to  you? 
profits. 

There  is  no  standing  still  in  the  clothii^  industry.  You  must  either  go  ahead  or 
fall  back  in  the  race  for  supremacy.  It  is  worth  your  while  to  use  all  practicable 
and  tested  instruments  and  methods  that  can  help  you  to  success.  In  the  adventurous 
days  of  Columbus,  many  ships  set  sail  without  charts  or  compass,  and  some  of  them 
arrived  in  port.  You  would  not  care,  however,  to  accept  this  as  a  precedent  to-day 
for  sailing  for  Euroi)e  on  a  modem  vessel  from  which  cnarts,  copapass,  and  vrireless 
had  been  removed.  Speed  is  much  more  important  now  than  in  the  old  days,  the 
number  of  passengers  and  value  of  the  cargo  much  greater,  and  any  disaster  of  more 
consequence.  In  the  same  way  many  a  clothing  business  succeeded  in  the  past, 
and  for  a  certain  time  without  systems,  statistics,  or  cost  figures.  Because  this  has 
been  done  in  the  past  is  no  reason  for  trying  to  do  it  now,  in  the  face  of  much  keener 
competition,  armed  with  all  the  modern  weapons  of  efficiency. 

The  elements  of  a  modem  cost  system  from  which  accurate  cost  estimates  may  be 
prepared  and  actual  costs  figured  are: 

First.  A  systematic  and  accurate  method  of  predetermining  the  yardage  of  piece 
goods  and  trimmings  used  for  each  suit  and  overcoat  model  cut. 

Second.  Some  method  of  collecting  the  detailed  labor  operation  costs  of  cutting 
and  making,  and  of  adding  thereto  the  correct  amount  necess;\ry  to  take  up  accurately 
manufacturing  and  shop  expense. 

Third.  The  third  element  of  a  modem  cost  system  is  a  method  for  determining  the 
percentage  necessary  to  add  to  this  production  cost  in  ortler  to  cover  selling,  adver- 
tising, and  general  expenses  and  to  provide  the  necessary  profits  of  the  business. 

Fourth.  A  fourth  element  is  a  system  of  preparing  detailed  cost  estimates  from  this 
information  from  which  the  selling  prices  of  the  merchandise  may  be  set. 

Fifth.  There  must  be  a  system  for  figuring  cutting-ticket  costs  during  the  manufac- 
turing season  which  will  enable  the  manufacturer  to  tell  beyond  the  shadow  of  a  <loubt 
where  he  has  succeeded  in  meeting  his  estimates  and  where  he  has  failed.  This 
information  is  vital  if  errors  in  setting  selling  prices  are  to  be  corrected  and  mistakes 
avoided  in  the  future. 

This  system  will  include  the  criticism  of  each  cutting  ticket  that  figures  a  certain 
per  cent  above  or  below  the  estimated  cost.  It  is  only  thus  that  the  manufacturer 
can  keep  his  cost  figures  accurate  and  maintain  accuracy  in  the  reporting  of  piece 
goods  and  trimmings  used  in  manufacture.  The  figuring  of  every  cutting-ticket  cost 
is  also  the  surest  way  of  finding  out  whether  or  not  tne  right  piece  goods  and  trimming 
are  being  used,  and  the  work  being  given  out  to  the  right  shop,  according  to  the  esti- 
mates upon  which  the  selling  prices  were  set. 

The  "actual  cost"  system  must  include  a  series  of  weekly  and  monthly  reports  u|)on 
the  operation  of  the  cutting  room,  manufacturing  department,  and  shops,  from  which 


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the  actual  efficiency  of  these  departments  may  be  compared  with  their  estimated 
eflficiency  and  the  necessary  adjustments  obtained  to  gross  profit  and  loss  figures. 

The  sixth  and  last  element  of  a  modem  cost  system  is  a  profit-figuring  division  of 
the  cost  department,  which  will  furnish  the  sales  department  with  monthly  sum- 
maries of  profit  and  loss  on  all  merchandise  charged,  by  merchandise  classifications, 
ranges,  and  salesmen.  It  is  only  through  the  knowledge  gained  by  such  figures  of 
profit  and  loss  that  you  can  plan  to  meet  competition  intelligently,  tell  where  you  are 
making  your  profits,  and  what  salesmen  are  selling  the  profit-making  merchandise. 

It  is  by  the  use  of  this  machinery  of  efficiency  that  you  should  find  the  greatest  aid 
in  selling  your  merchandise  at  a  legitimate  profit,  in  increasing  the  quality  of  your 
merchandise,  and  in  adding  to  the  net  profits  of  the  business  through  the  eliminaUon 
of  all  wastes  and  inefficiencies. 

These  same  elements  enter  into  both  estimated  costs  and  actual  costs,  and  the  two 
may  be  considered  together. 

The  sum  of  materials  used,  productive  labor,  and  manufacturing  expense  is  called 
produc|^ion  cost.  The  work  of  the  cost  accountant  is  to  predetermine  this  cost  correctly 
and  to  prove  his  figures  to  be  correct  by  the  results  of  the  actual  cost  system. 

In  the  clothing  industry  materials  used  are  piece  goods  and  trimmings.  To  these 
are  applied  productive  labor  in  the  cutting  room  and  shops,  and  to  this  must  be  added 
the  manufacturing  expense  incurred. 

I  have  found  so  many  fundamentally  incorrect  cost-figuring  methods  in  use  in  the 
clothing  industry  that  it  is  difltcult  to  enumerate  them  all.  Without  doubt  the  worst 
and  most  common  practice  is  that  of  guessing  at  each  and  every  item  of  cost  through 
the  use  of  so-callecl  averages.  Selling  prices  of  entire  lines  are  set  upon  figures  for 
piece  goods  and  trimming  yardages  that  must  be  traditional  in  the  clothing  business, 
they  are  so  old.  Like  most  traditions,  they  are  all  wrong.  There  can  be  no  such 
thing  as  an  average  cost,  an  average  yardage,  or  an  average  making  price  when  it 
comes  to  cost  figuring.  To  use  averages  when  you  can  easily  get  actual  figures  is  to 
court  disaster.  If  it  is  true  that  some  clothing  manufacturers  in  the  East  are  satisfied 
with  a  profit  of  50  cents  on  a  suit,  these  manufacturers  should  figure  every  item  of  cost 
out  to  the  last  fraction  of  a  cent.  It  would  not  take  much  to  convert  this  profit  into  a 
loss  which  could  easily  be  disastrous.  i      •       • 

Another  bad  practice  is  that  of  figuring  the  cost  of  piece  goods  and  trimmings  at 
list  prices,  in  the  hope  that  the  discount  you  take  on  these  materials  will  offset  the 
discount  your  customers  take  on  finished  merchandise.  The  two  never  will  offset 
one  another,  as  a  little  figuring  will  prove.  By  taking  piece  goods  and  trimmings 
into  your  costs  at  list  you  simply  falsify  both  your  manufacturing  cost  and  your  general 
overhead  percentage.  . 

The  addition  of  various  sums  to  cover  contingencies  of  one  kind  or  another,  or  simply 
to  play  safe,  is  another  bad  feature  of  cost  figuring  in  the  clothing  industrv.  Every 
item  of  cost,  including  wastes  of  various  kinds,  can  be  predetermined.  By  adding 
a  little  here  and  there  to  your  costs  you  simply  run  them  up  beyond  all  reason,  confuse 
everyone  who  tries  to  make  use  of  your  cost  figures,  including  yourself,  and  show  a 
smaller  paper  profit  than  you  actually  make,  because  part  of  your  profit  is  in  these 
hidden  charges.  This,  too,  is  a  traditional  method  of  figuring  in  the  clothing  industry, 
but  it  is  a  poor  way,  unless  you  actually  hate  to  know  just  how  much  money  you  are 
making  or  losing.    "Sometimes  I  wonder  if  this  may  not  actually  be  the  case.    *    *    * 

Onelast  point:  When  we  speak  of  making  a  profit  of  6  percent  we  always  mean  a 
profit  of  r>  per  cent  on  sales.    On  a  million-dollar  business  this  would  amount  to  $60,000 

Erofit.  A  manufacturer  who  wants  to  make  6  per  cent  and  who  adds  this  amount  to 
is  cost  price  is  making  a  very  bad  mistake.  The  total  productive  cost  of  a  million- 
dollar  business  might  be  somewhere  around  $750,000.  Six  per  cent  of  this  amount 
is  only  $45,000,  or  4^^  per  cent  on  the  sales,  instead  of  the  6  per  cent  figured  on. 

This  kind  of  figuring  is  hard  on  the  manufacturer  who  figures  on  making  a  legitimate 
profit,  and  in  the  long  run  harder  still  on  the  manufacturer  who  figures  in  this  way. 

So  long  as  your  selling  prices  are  below  your  comi>etitor8'  you  can  find  a  market  for 
your  merchandise.  Your  customer  does  not  care  if  you  give  him  a  suit  that  cost  you 
$10  for  $9,  but  when  you  do  this  you  are  working  to  make  your  customer  rich  and 
"going  broke"  yourself.  This  may  be  magnificent,  but  it  is  not  business,  and  it  is 
this  kind  of  competition  that  is  the  curse  of  the  clothing  business. 

Rather  than  tell  you  of  the  bad  practices  I  have  found  in  cost  keeping  in  this  indus- 
try, I  am  going  to  give  you  my  idea  as  to  correct  methods,  for  figuring  cost  estimates 
and  actual  costs.  If  any  of  you  disagree  with  the  methods  here  advocated,  I  will  be 
glad  to  answer  any  questions  regarding  them  to  the  best  of  my  ability. 

I  can  not  tell  you  now  much  money  should  be  spent  for  piece  goods,  trimmings,  and 
making  in  each  suit  or  overcoat  range.  This  is  a  matter  that  can  only  be  decided  by 
taking  into  consideration  the  line  of  merchandise  you  are  selling,  the  demands  of 


i 

I 


232 


MEN'S   FACTOEY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


K" 


COST-FINDING  AND  ACCOUNTING   CONDITIONS. 


233 


your  trade,  the  eflBciency  of  your  entire  organization,  and  the  profits  you  wish  to  make. 
It  is  difficult  to  be  strong  in  piece  goods,  trimmings,  and  making  in  every  range, 
although  this  is  certainly  the  ideal  to  work  toward.  When  you  have  decided  how 
much  money  you  can  spend  on  piece  goods,  trimmings,  and  making  on  an  average- 
priced  suit  and  overcoat,  you  are  ready  to  start  getting  up  your  estimate  sheets.  Make 
these  estimates  as  detailed  as  possible.  Working  from  the  average-priced  suit  or 
overcoat,  you  will  have  to  decide  upon  the  approximate  value  that  can  be  given  in 
piece  ^oods,  trimmings,  and  making  in  each  selling-price  range.  You  will  then  get 
up  estimates  covering  each  model  in  accordance  with  your  general  plan.  Do  not  l>e 
afraid  of  making  these  estimate  sheets  too  detailed,  and  do  not  let  the  fact  that  you 
can  not  or  need  not  set  your  selling  prices  in  exact  conformity  with  the  estimated 
costs  deter  you  from  making  these  estimates  as  correctly  as  possible.  It  is  a  good  thing 
to  realize  in  advance  that  you  can  not  make  the  same  profit  upon  all  clasps  of  mer- 
chandise sold,  and  to  have  some  idea  in  advance  just  where  you  are  going  to  make 
and  where  you  are  going  to  lose.  You  must  take  some  business  at  a  small  profit.  On 
the  other  hand,  you  may  be  able  to  realize  more  than  an  average  profit  on  other  classes 
of  merchandise  on  account  of  their  novelty,  attractiveness  of  design,  or  other  quality 
which  makes  them  of  es])ecial  value.  One  thing  is  certain  about  both  estimated 
and  actual  cost  figures — you  can  not  change  them  to  suit  your  own  withes  without 
destroying  their  value  to  you  as  standards  from  which  to  work. 

The  cost  of  piece  goods,  trimmings,  and  findings  should  be  always  fiigured  on  a 
basis  of  net  cost  plus  the  freight.  There  is  no  reason  in  the  world  for  taking  these 
costs  at  list  prices  and  equalizing  the  materials  bought  on  a  net  basis.  Get  the  exact 
yardage  u -ed  for  each  model  by  having  tost  lays  made  of  piece  goods,  coat  linings, 
sleeve  linings,  vest  backs,  and  vest  linings.  In  figuring  the  cutting-ticket  costs  you 
can  obtain  the  exact  yardage  used,  priced  at  the  exacf  net  cost  per  yard  paid  for  the 
piece  used.  Have  test  lays  made  of  all  findings,  using  lays  for  at  least  12  garments 
and  reducing  the  figures  to  a  cost  per  garment  on  the  estimate  sheets.  Do  not  forget 
that  you  may  obtain  efficient  figures  on  teat  lays  and  very  inefficient  results  in  tne 
cutting  and  trimming  rooms  on  actual  production.  This  fact  should  make  you  very 
much  interested  in  some  method  for  controlling  the  yardage  used  of  piece  goods  and 
trimmings  under  actual  working  conditions. 

A  ceri^u  percentage  must  be  added  to  the  cost  of  all  piece  goods  in  your  estimates 
to  cover  loss  in  the  sponging  room  through  shrinkage.  I  have  seldom  found  this 
matter  of  ^rinkage  handlw  correctly,  and  it  is  indeed  a  difficult  matter  to  determine 
what  percent^e  to  use  unless  you  have  better  records  from  the  sponging  department 
than  are  kept  by  most  houses. 

In  prepanng  cost  estimates  of  cutting  and  making  labor  you  are  preparing  figures 
that  must  be  used  in  figuring  your  cutting-ticket  costs  also,  and  corrected  by  the 
weekly  operation  reports  from  the  cutting  room,  manufacturing  department,  and 
shops.  It  would  be  quite  possible  to  figure  from  each  cutting  ticket  the  cost  of  the 
direct  cutting-room  labor  applied  on  the  ticket,  but  as  it  is  wholly  imf)ossible  to  figure 
the  exact  cost  of  the  indirect  items  of  labor  applied  in  the  other  divisions  of  the  manu- 
facturing department,  I  have  always  preferred  to  figure  a  schedule  cost  for  suits  and 
overcoate,  using  this  schedule  in  estimates  and  cutting-ticket  costs.  This  schedule 
Involves  the  cost  of  the  work  done  in  the  cutting  and  trimming  rooms,  the  charge  for 
the  designer's  salary,  wages  of  grader  and  paper  cutters,  the  saLa.ries  and  wages  of  the 
piece  goods,  examining  and  sponging  room,  busheling  and  final  examining  depart- 
ments, and  the  salary  of  the  superintendent,  his  assistant,  and  the  clerks  in  the  manu- 
facturing-department office.  To  this  labor  cost  must  be  added  the  proper  charges 
to  cover  expense  items,  such  as  taxes,  insurance,  rent,  depreciation  oo  machinery 
and  fixtures,  heat,  light,  and  power,  as  well  as  the  miscellaneous  expenses  chargeable 
to  the  departments  named. 

The  last  item  to  be  obtained  in  order  to  get  the  production  cost  is  the  cost  of  making 
the  coat,  pants,  and  vest.  Here,  too,  the  figures  prepared  for  estimated  purposes 
must  be  used  in  figuring  cutting-ticket  costs,  and  here,  too,  the  weekly  operating 
reports  from  the  shops  furnish  the  necessary  adjusting  figures  to  show  you  the  dif- 
fCTence  between  your  estimated  and  actual  shop  efficiencies.  In  getting  up  making 
estimates  you  should  get  from  each  shop  foreman  a  detailed  scheaule  of  prices  paid 
for  each  operation  on  each  model  that  will  be  made  in  his  shop. 

You  have  organized  your  shops  to  produce  garnaents  of  a  certain  quality  at  a  certain 
price.  If  you  fail  to  obtain  your  estimated  efficiency  here,  you  stand  to  lose  a  great 
deal  of  money  in  a  very  short  time.     *    *    * 

While  on  the  subject  of  expense  charges  I  should  like  to  emphasize  the  necessity 
for  clear  and  correct  clasdfication  of  all  expenses.  I  have  been  told  many  times 
that  it  did  not  matter  much  whether  a  certain  expense  was  charged  to  general  or  to 
manufacturing  cost — that  it  was  only  a  case  of  changing  money  from  one  pocket  to 


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another.  This  is  a  mistake  that  may  cause  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  Manufacturers 
of  clothing  are  engaged  in  many  varied  activities.  It  is  quite  possible  to  be  a  very 
capable  distributor  and  a  very  poor  manufacturer,  or  vice  versa.  It  is  only  by  means 
of  correct  classifications  that  you  can  judge  as  to  your  efficiency  in  any  given  depart- 
ment. It  is  only  through  the  correct  classification  of  expense  tJiat  you  can  hope  tp 
obtain  correct  figures  of  gross  profits  by  merchandise  classifications,  or  to  reduce  in 
any  scientific  manner  the  overhead  charges  that  the  business  is  now  carrying. 

I  have  been  asked  many  times  to  name  a  normal  percentage  on  sales  to  cover  selling, 
advertising,  and  general  expense;  also  what  ratio  shop  expense  should  bear  to  shop 
productive  labor.  These  questions  can  not  be  answered  in  general,  owing  to  the 
absolute  lack  of  uniform  accounting  methods  in  the  clothing  industry.  It  ought  to 
be  well  worth  while  for  your  association  to  take  up  this  matter  with  the  view  of  recom- 
mending some  uniform  method  of  classification  to  your  members.  This  would  be 
taking  a  long  step  toward  a  general  increase  in  the  clearness  and  usefulness  of  the 
statistics  preparea  by  your  accountants. 

Right  here  1  should  like  to  make  a  plea  for  the  theoretical  accountant.  Accounting 
can  not  be  picked  up  by  prgictical  experience  unless  the  experience  happens  to  be 
with  people  who  possess  a  theoretically  correct  system  of  accounts.  A  good  ledger 
clerk  or  a  good  cashier  is  by  no  possible  stretch  of  the  im^ination  a  good  accountant, 
unless  his  experience  has  been  supplemented  by  special  instruction  along  accounting 
lines.  Far  greater  harm  results  from  unintell^ent  accounting  than  from  dishonest 
accounting.  It  has  been  said,  and  I  have  found  it  to  be  true,  that  in  practical  affairs 
unintelligent  accounting  is  the  rule  and  dishonest  accounting  the  exception.  In 
hiring  an  accountant  do  not  be  afraid  of  the  word  theory.  There  is  plenty  of  prac- 
tical ability  in  the  clothing  business.  A  little  theory  will  do  no  harm.  It  will  be  no 
great  loss  if  y^ur  accountant  does  not  know  a  wigan  from  an  undercollaf ,  but  it  will 
be  a  great  loss  if  he  does  not  know  the  difference  between  a  trial  balance  and  a  balance 

sheet. 

To  return  to  the  figuring  of  overhead  charges  on  production  cost.  It  is  usually  safe 
to  take  the  records  for  the  previous' year  in  arriving  at  the  percentage  to  cover  sell'mg, 
advertising,  and  general  expense  charges,  unless  you  happen  to  be  planning  on  changes 
which  will  result  in  an  obvious  increase  in  some  of  these  expenses.  In  getting  up  the 
figures  do  not  forget  depreciation  charges,  administration  allowances,  loss  on  bad 
accounts,  or  interest  and.discount  charges.  Be  sure  to  include  the  correct  proportion 
of  service  charges,  such  as  rent,  taxes,  insurance,  light,  heat,  power,  etc.  In  general, 
expense  charges  include  all  expense  chargeable  to  the  credit  department,  general 
office,  accounting  and  statistical  department,  woolen  office,  and  finished-stock  depart- 
ments. 

Some  of  you  may  be  interested  in  knowing  about  how  much  it  should  cost  to  main- 
tain a  department  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  cost  estimates,  actual  cost  figuring, 
the  preparation  of  weekly  and  monthly  manufacturing-department  and  shop-opera- 
tion reports,  the  analysis  and  preparation  of  monthly  reports  of  selling,  advertising, 
general,  manufacturing,  and  shop  expenses,  the  figuring  of  monthly  gross  profits  by 
merchandise  classifications  and  salesmen,  and  the  preparation  of  all  statistics  and 
general  accounting  statements.  Such  a  department  should  be  in  chaise  of  a  good 
Doan.  responsible  only  to  the  management  for  results.  This  man  should  be  directly 
in  charge  of  the  preparation  of  cost  estimates.  Two  girls  can  figure  all  the  cutting- 
ticket  costs  for  a  $3,000,000  business.  Another  girl  can  prepare  and  figure  all  weekly 
and  monthly  operation  and  expense  reports.  Two  more  can  handle  the  profit-figuring 
work.  Taken  altogether  the  cost  of  such  a  department  should  not  exceed  $5,000  a 
year  for  a  $3,000,000  bus'mess,  and  the  results  should  be  worth  many  times  that 
amount.    *    *    ♦ 


r^F-l^ 


SELLING   CONDITIONS. 


235 


^U 


CHAPTER  VII. 
SELLIirG  CONDITIONS. 


SELLING  EXPENSES. 


Table  49  shows,  by  establishments,  the  percentage  of  manufacturing 
profit  and  final  profit  and  the  percentages  of  the  various  items  of 
selling  expense  based  on  net  sales. 

On  the  schedules  secured  from  the  64  establishments  shown  in  this 
table  selling  expense  was  divided  into  the  following  items: 

S^aries  of  officials  charged  to  sales  department  includes  the  sal- 
aries of  officials  or  partners  in  charge  of  selling,  or  the  portion  of 
salaries  distributed  according  to  the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  sell- 
ing. Salaries,  commissions,  and  general  travehng  expense  includes 
the  salaries,  traveling  expense,  and  commissions  of  salesmen  directly 
engaged  in  selling  to  the  trade.  Wages  in  sales  department  in- 
cludes the  wages  of  employees  in  this  department  not  actively  en- 
gaged in  selling.  Rent  charged  to  sales  is  rent  naid  for  showrooms, 
sales  offices,  etc.  Freight  and  express  charged  to  selling  mclude 
only  carrying  charges  on  prepaid  shipments  to  customers.  Adver- 
tising costs  diarged  to  sellmg  are  only  such  costs  as  bring  the  mer- 
chandise to  the  notice  of  the  public  or  the  trade,  and  do  not  mclude 
advertising  for  help.  Cases  and  other  shipning  materials  include 
costs  for  all  materials  used  in  packing  and  shipping  goods.  Other 
selling  expense  is  made  up  of  all  costs  chargeable  to  selling  not  in- 
cluded in  the  divisions  of  cost  alreadj  enumerated. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  nearly  all  instances  the  per  cent  of  cost  m 
the  various  subdivisions  of  selling  expense  is  somewhat  higher  for 
Group  I,  with  no  operating  contracted,  than  for  Group  II,  with  part 
of  operating  contracted,  and  considerably  higher  than  Group  III, 
with  all  operating  contracted.  This  is  explained  by  the^fact  that 
Group  I  embraces  establishments  which  turn  out  very  high-grade 
clothing,  and  on  account  of  the  nature  of  their  product  have  higher 
sellint'  expenses.  This  also  applies  to  Group  II,  composed  of  estab- 
lishments manufacturing  high  and  medium  priced  merchandise. 
Clothing  of  this  description,  on  account  of  distinctiveness  of  style 
and  quality  necessary  to  attract  an  exclusive  trade,  must  be  exten- 
sively advertised,  more  expensive  salesmen  are  required  to  market 
the  product,  expenses  for  showrooms  and  sales  offices  are  necessary, 
packing  and  shipping  expenses  are  greater,  and  other  selling  expenses 

Group  III  is  made  up  of  establishments  which  contract  all  operating 
and  have  a  low-priced  product.     Consequently  they  do  little  adver- 
tising, and  in  most  instances  their  other  selling  expenses  are  smaU  m 
proportion. 
234 


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236 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE    CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


SELLING   CONDITIONS. 


237 


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238 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


SELLING   CONDITIONS. 


239 


The  following  table  shows  the  percentage  of  selling  expense  and 
of  profit  of  establishments  that  advertise  nationally  as  compared 
with  those  that  do  not  advertise  nationally,  the  percentages  being 
based  on  net  sales: 

Table  50.— Percentage  of  Selling  Expense  and  of  Profit,  of  Establishments 
THAT  Advertise  Nationally  Compared  with  Those  that  Do  Not  Advertise 
Nationally. 


Num- 
ber. 

Sal- 
aries of 

ofTi- 
ciaLs. 

Sal- 
vies, 
com- 
mis- 
sions, 
etc. 

Adver- 
tising. 

Other 
selling 

ex- 
pense. 

Total 
selling 

ex- 
pense. 

Manu- 
factur- 

profit. 

Final 
profit. 

Group  I.  No  operating  contracted: 
Establishments  advertising  na- 
tionally       

4 
8 

9 
21 

1 

21 

14 

SO 

Perct. 
0.89 

1.70 

.61 
.76 

.54 
1.13 

.67 
1.05 

Perct. 
5.99 

4.14 

4.75 
4.63 

6.96 
4.06 

5.00 
4.30 

Perct. 
Z27 

.23 

2.13 
.33 

1.66 
.13 

2.14 
.22 

Perct. 
2.00 

1.31 

1.39 
.90 

1.06 
.69 

1.51 

.85 

Perct. 
11.15 

7.38 

8.88 
6.62 

ia24 
6.01 

9.41 
6.42 

Per  a. 
6.11 

4.90 

5w76 
4.20 

1.62 
6.19 

5.70 
&24 

Per  el. 
3.54 

Establishments  not  advertising 
nationally 

6.63 

Group   II.  Part   of  operating   con- 
tracted: 
Establishments  advertising  na- 
tionally   

&13 

Establishments  not  advertising 
nationally 

3.21 

Group  III.  All  operating  contracted: 
Establishments  advertising  na- 
tionally   

Lll 

Establishments  not  advertising 
nationally 

&8D 

Total  for  all  groups: 

Establishments  advertising  na- 
tionallv 

&41 

Establishments  not  advertising 
nationally 

4.87 

The  14  establishments  that  advertise  extensively  had  net  sales  of 
$33,263,418,  as  compared  with  net  sales  of  $33,648,536  by  50  estab- 
lishments that  are  not  national  advertisers,  indicating  that  the 
national  advertisers  are  considerably  larger  establishments  than  those 
advertising  only  to  a  limited  extent. 

The  estabhshments  in  Group  I  and  Group  II  are  manufacturers  of 
high  and  medium  priced  clothing,  while  the  establishments  in- Group 
III  turn  out  a  low-priced  product.  The  table  indicates  that  in  the 
opinion  of  manufacturers,  mgh  and  medium  priced  clothing  can  better 
be  marketed  by  means  of  extensive  advertising  than  can  low-priced 
clothing,  as  omy  one  estabUshment  in  Group  III,  which  represents 
the  low-priced  manufacturers,  is  nationally  advertised. 

In  the  total  for  all  groups,  the  total  selling  expense  for  the  14  estab- 
lishments that  are  national  advertisers  is  9.41  per  cent,  as  compared 
with  a  total  selling  expense  of  6.42  per  cent  for  50  establishments 
that  do  not  advertise  extensively.  The  14  national  advertisers  also 
show  a  higher  percentage  of  manufacturing  and  final  profit  than  the 
50  estabhshments  doing  limited  advertising. 

The  total  for  all  groups  further  shows  ttiat  the  14  establishments 
advertising  nationaBy  have  a  higher  percentage  for  salaries,  com- 
missions, traveling  and  general  expense  of  salesmen,  advertising,  and 
other  selling  expense,  than  the  50  estabhshments  doing  hmited  adver- 
tising. However,  the  50  estabhshments  doing  limited  advertising 
show  1.05  per  cent  for  salaries  of  oflScials  apportioned  to  seUing,  as 
compared  with  0.67  per  cent  for  this  item  shown  by  the  14  establish- 


I 


%• 


y 


k 


J 


■K 


ments  doing  national  advertising.  The  explanation  of  this  condition 
is  that  the  hmited-advertising  concerns  are  smaller  and  that  officials 
or  partners  devote  more  personal  time  to  actual  selhng  and  employ 
fewer  salesmen,  which  is  substantiated  by  the  colunrn  showing  sala- 
ries, commissions,  travehng,  and  general  expense  of  salesmen.  In 
fact,  it  was  ascertained  that  in  some  of  the  smaller  estabhshments 
visited  officials  or  partners  were  selling  all  or  the  greater  part  of  the 
product. 

'^  SELLING  METHODS. 

The  several  methods  of  distributing  men's  factory-made  clothing 
are  as  follows:  By  seUing  direct  to  the  retail  trade,  by  "  tailoring  to  the 
trade,"  by  "  mail  order,"  or  by  selling  to  jobbers.  The  bulk  of  men's 
factory-made  clothing  is  sold  direct  to  retail  stores.  In  order  to  reach 
this  trade  the  manufacturer  employs  travehng  salesmen  who  cover  a 
defined  territory  and  call  personally  on  the  retailers. 

Practically  all  men's  ready-made  clothing  is  made  to  fill  orders, 
and  httle,  particularly  in  the  higher-priced  lines,  is  made  for  stock. 

The  manufacturer  has  new  designs  perfected  well  in  advance  of 
the  opening  of  the  season.  Sample  garments  are  made  up  for  each 
traveling  salesman,  and  in  addition  ''swatches  "  or  samples  of  various 
styles  of  cloth,  are  carried.  The  salesman  submits  these  samples  to 
the  retailers  in  his  territory  and  takes  orders  for  future  dehvery,  these 
orders  being  sent  to  the  factory  and  there  made  up  according  to 
specifications.     Orders   are   recorded   three   to   six   months   before 

deliverv* 

There  has  been  a  growing  tendency  in  recent  years  for  manufac- 
turers to  do  ''  tailoring  to  the  trade."  This  branch  of  the  industry  is 
making  rapid  strides,  and  certain  concerns  confine  themselves  entirely 
to  this  fine  of  business.  Others  use  it  as  a  "side  fine,"  in  addition  to 
deahng  with  retailers  in  ready-made  clothing.  The  imtial  expense  is 
very  large,  as  it  requires  the  making  up  of  an  entire  fine  of  samples 
bound  in  book  form,  and  in  addition,  very  frequently,  made-up  models 
are  furnished.  It  is  said,  however,  that  the  returns  justify  the 
expense,  as  ventures  in  this  line  have  proved  very  orofitable.  ' '  Tailor- 
ing to  the  trade"  is  handled  for  the  manufacturer  by  merchant  tailors, 
or,  in  the  smaller  towns  and  villages,  by  retail  stores.  The  cus- 
tomer selects  the  style  of  cloth  he  desires  from  the  books  of  samples, 
his  measure  is  taken,  and  the  order  sent  to  the  factory.  The  garment 
is  made  up  and  sent  for  a  try-on,  and  if  necessary,  is  returned  to  the 
factory  for  proper  alterations.  ,  . 

Mail-order  houses  sell  entirely  through  catalogues  or  by  advertising. 
Both  ready-made  clothing  and  made-to-order  garments  are  sold  in 
this  way.  Some  mail-order  houses  have  their  own  factories,  while 
others  buy  from  the  regular  manufacturers.  It  is  also  said  that  mail- 
order houses  buy  up  the  left-over  goods  and  odds  and  ends  that  the 
manufacturer  is  unable  to  sell  to  the  retail  trade.  The  greater  part 
of  the  clothing  sold  by  mail-order  houses  is  disposed  of  in  small  towns 
or  in  rural  districts. 

Mail-order  houses  that  make  clothing  to  individual  order  secure 
their  trade  principally  through  advertising.  Cloth  samples  are  sent 
to  the  customer,  from  whidi  he  makes  his  selection;  he  has  his 
measure  taken  and  sends  the  order  to  the  mail-order  house,  where 


11 


V 


240 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


W 


the  garment  is  made  up.  This  branch  of  the  mail-order  business  is 
similar  to  "tailoring  to  the  trade." 

There  is  very  little  field  for  the  jobber  now  in  handling  men's 
factory-made  clothing.  Changed  conditions  in  the  industry  have 
caused  almost  the  entire  elimination  of  the  jobber  as  a  medium  of 
distribution.  The  manufacturers  have  preferred  to  deal  directly  with 
their  customers,  and  desire  to  establish  a  custom  which  is  their  own 
and  upon  which  they  can  rely.  The  little  business  that  is  now  done 
with  jobbers  is  in  the  cheapest  Hues  only,  and  in  job  lots  and  left-over 
stock. 

Table  51  shows  the  distribution  of  net  sales  in  the  64  establishments 
from  which  information  was  secured: 

Table  51. — Distribution  of  Net  Sales. 


\ 


\ 


\ 


x^ 


Number  of 
establish- 
ments. 

Sold  to 
retailers. 

Sold  to 
jobbers. 

Sold  by 

mail 

order. 

Sold 

tailoring 

to  the 

trade. 

Exported. 

52 
2 

3 
1 

Percent. 
loaoo 

99.00 
99.00 
95.00 

9a  00 

90.  op 
85.00 
75.00 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

1.00 

1.00 

5.00 

10.00 

laoo 

l&OO 

25.00 
8a  00 

2a  00 

04 

98w21 

1.29 

.21 

.08 

.21 

\ 


In  addition  to  the  three  establishments  that  reported  the  percent- 
ages of  their  net  sales  exported,  seven  establishments  reported  very 
small  exports.  The  countries  to  which  the  exports  were  made  are 
Canada,  the  Bahamas,  Cuba,  Mexico,  Panama,  Colombia,  Peru,  and 
Australia. 

Traveling  salesmen  employed  by  manufacturers  of  men's  ready- 
made  clothing  sell  on  commission,  on  salary,  expenses,  and  com- 
mission, or  on  straight  salary  and  expenses.  However,  the  custom 
almost  universal  in  the  industry  is  for  salesmen  to  be  paid  a  com- 
mission on  the  amount  of  business  the(jr  secure.  The  compensation 
for  traveling  salesmen  on  a  commission  basis  averages  about  7  per 
cent  on  gross  sales.  The  manufacturer  provides  a  drawing  accoimt 
based  on  commission,  and  this  drawing  accoimt  and  traveUng  expenses 
are  deducted  from  commissions  on  sales.  In  most  cases  me  manu- 
facturer prefers  to  pay  a  commission,  rather  than  a  straight  salary 
and  expenses,  as  the  former  method  keeps  the  salesman  working  his 
best  all  through  the  season,  and  his  earnings  depend  only  upon  his  own 
industry  and  ability. 
/' — ^It  is  generally  stated  throughout  the  industry  that  the  cost  to  sell 
has  been  increasing  each  year,  for  a  number  of  years.  Hotel  rates 
have  gradually  increased,  and  all  general  traveling  expenses  have 
advanced.  Tne  selling  season  has  become  so  mtlch  snorter  than 
formerly  that,  it  is  claimed,  it  now  takes  two  salesmen  to  cover  the 
territory  formerly  worked  by  one.  Formerly  orders  were  large 
but  now  they  are  smaller  and  more  frequent,  and  this  necessitates 
more  trips  over  the  territory  and  consequently  more  expense. 


"1 


SELLING   CONDITIONS. 


241 


^ 


i 


Manufacturers  have  two  methods  of  selling  to  retailers;  they  sell 
to  all  from  whom  orders  can  be  secured  or  confine  their  business  to 
one  or  two  retailers  in  each  city  or  town.  i  •  ,    • 

There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  in  the  industry  as  to  which  is 
the  more  advantageous  method.  To  be  successful  m  sellmg  by  the 
''sole-agent''  plan  the  manufacturer  must  advertise  extensively 
and  estabUsh  a  national  reputation  for  his  merchandise.  This  plan 
requires  a  considerable  amount  of  capital,  and  none  but  the  larger 
concerns  can  afford  to  embark  on  such  an  extensive  advertismg 
campaign.  The  manufacturer  seUing  to  sole  agents  selecte  the  stores 
in  each  community  handling  his  merchandise  and  without  doubt 
has  more  reliable  customers  than  the  manufacturer  selling  to.  all 
retailers.  Further,  under  normal  conditions,  he  can  better  estimate 
the  volume  of  his  business  in  advance  of  the  season  and  has  to  con- 
tend with  fewer  cancellations  and  returns  and  allowances. 

The  retailer  who  acts  as  the  sole  distributor  in  a  community  for  a 
brand  of  nationally  advertised  mens  clothing  enjoys  many  advan- 
tages over  his  competitors.  The  fact  that  he  is  agent  for  a  well- 
known  make  of  clothing  gives  his  store  a  certam  pr^tige.  Ihe 
extensive  advertising  done  by  the  manufacturer  wiU  bnng  trade 
not  only  in  men's  clothing,  but  m  other  Imes  as  well.  The  retailer 
acting  as  sole  agent  has  little  trouble  on  account  of  late  delivery, 
and  he  avoids  cut-rate  sales.  Certain  retailers,  however,  object  to 
the  sole-agent  method,  preferring  to  sell  under  theu-  own  brand 
and  stand  behind  the  reputation  of  theb  merchandise,  rather  than 
sell  under  the  trade-mark  of  the  manufacturer  and  do  business  on  his 

There  is  an  opinion  in  the  retail  trade  that  the  confining  of  sales 
by  the  larger  manufacturers  to  one  or  two  retailers  in  each  locahty 
is  restricting  the  number  of  retailers  of  men  s  factory-m^^de  clothing. 
It  is  without  doubt  a  fact  that  anyone  starting  in  the  rotail-clo thing 
business  experiences  great  difficulty  in  securing  the  agencv  for  any 
of  the  large  nationally  advertised  manufacturers.  Establishments  of 
this  description  have  their  sole  agents  in  all  the  principal  places  in  <. 
the  country,  and  the  new  retailer  is  apt  to  find  the  brands  he  desu-es  1 
to  handle  already  controlled  by  other  retailers. 

There  are,  however,  numerous  manufacturers  of  men  s  factory-made 
clothing  who  do  httle  if  anv  advertising  and  whose  product  is  entirely 
unknown  to  the  general  pubhc.  Many  of  these  factories  turn  out  high- 
grade  merchandise,  garments  that  will  put  their  customers  ui  direct 
competition  with  retailers  handling  nationally  advertised  brands. 
Many  retaUers  prefer  to  buy  from  houses  of  this  kmd,  for  they  can 
sell  under  their  own  brands  and  build  up  a  reputation  for  themselves 
rather  than  for  the  manufacturer.  Some  manufacturer  of  non- 
advertised  Imes  of  mens  clothing  state  that  when  the  difference  in 
cost  of  advertising  is  taken  into  consideration  they  prefer  to  establish 
a  reputation  for  quaUty  with  the  retail  trade  rather  than  with  the 

general  public.  j    •      *       i       j  \t 

The  largest  sales  for  the  winter  season  are  made  m  April  and  May, 
with  thq  heaviest  deliveries  in  August  and  September.     The  largest 
sales  for  the  summer  season  are  in  October  and  November,  with 
deliveries  heaviest  in  February  and  March.     However,  some  mer-    | 
chants  in  the  West  demand  earher  deliveries,  and  the  heaviest  ship- 


K^ 


I 

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I 
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t 


11914°— 16 16 


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lif*''^^ 


:   i 


V> 


.  v^ 


i 


242 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


X— 


ments  to  this  section  are  two  to  four  weeks  earlier  than  in  the  East. 
On  account  of  overcoats,  the  fall  season  exceeds  the  spring  business. 
For  years  the  market  has  been  opened  earlier  every  season,  this 
early  opening  being  an  evil  of  the  business  that  will  be  discussed 
later  in  this  report  (d.  249). 

The  tendency  in  tne  trade  seems  to  be  toward  smaller  and  more 
frequent  orders,  one  reason  for  which  is  the  rapid  change  in  styles 
in  recent  years.  When  styles  remained  more  uniform  from  year  to 
year,  the  retailer  could  carry  left-over  goods  from  one  season  to  the 
next  and  sell  them  without  a  loss.  Style  changes  from  season  to 
season  have  put  an  end  to  this,  and  conseq^uently  the  retailer  places 
smaller  orders,  fearing  that  a  dull  season  will  leave  him  with  a  stock 
of  left-over  goods. 

Memorandum  orders,  or  goods  shipped  on  consignment,  have  also 
caused  smaller  orders.  The  retailer  knows  that  by  ordering  in  small 
quantities  he  can  replenish  his  stock  late  in  the  season  at  a  much 
lower  cost  and  at  a  smaller  risk  of  loss,  as  he  can  return  all  unsold 
goods  received  on  a  memorandum  order  or  consignment  shipment. 
The  general  opinion  among  manufacturers  interviewed  was  that 
retailers  would  continue  to  put  in  small  orders  and  order  more 
frequently  and  that  the  days  of  the  old-fashioned  bulky  orders  are 
^t  an  end. 

One  of  the  leading  men's  clothing  factories  has  recently  announced 
a  plan  to  install  a  department,  the  object  of  which  will  be  to  make 
deliveries  of  merchandise  about  three  days  after  the  order  is  received. 
It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  retailer,  knowing  that  he  can  secure 
such  prompt  delivery  and  can  replenish  his  stock  at  short  notice, 
will  place  smaller  initial  orders. 

Competition  in  the  men's  ready-made  clothing  industry  is  free  and 
unobstructed  and  is  as  keen  as  it  well  could  be.  There  are  no  com- 
binations or  lai*ge  concerns  that  can  be  said  to  dominate  the  trade 
or  to  fix  prices.  Traveling  salesmen  visit  aD  sections,  and  the  retailer 
has  the  opportunity  of  seeing  a  great  many  lines;  hance  he  is  well 
informed  regarding  prices  and  can  make  comparisons.  Retailers 
have  been  educated  so  thoroughly  in  the  business,  through  salesmen 
and  by  other  means,  that  their  knowledge  is  complete.  Retailers 
having  such  familiarity  with  prices  and  opportunity  for  choice,  a 
manufacturer  must  quote  very  close  prices  or  he  will  not  be  able 
to  do  business. 

While  there  is  to  a  certain  extent  a  uniform  scale  of  discounts  and 
time  and  dating  allowances  throughout  the  industry,  the  scale  is  not 
used  by  all  manufacturers.  A  great  deal  depends  upon  the  class  of 
trade  served  and  on  the  character,  reputation,  and  business  methods 
of  the  manufacturing  establishment. 

Some  concerns  have  been  successful  in  establishing  such  a  high 
reputation  for  quality  that  their  output  can  be  sold  at  10  days  net, 
and  in  a  number  of  instances  these  are  the  only  terms  quoted.  Such 
manufacturers  are  not  numerous,  but  they  have  an  immense  advan- 
tage over  others.  Very  often  these  strict  terms  are  carried  out  and 
the  manufacturer  is  successful  in  selling  on  these  terms  because  he 
quotes  very  low  prices  on  his  goods.  Usually,  however^  the  tferms  to 
retailers  in  the  clothing  trade  are  7  per  cent,  10  days;  6  per  cent,  30 
days ;  and  5  per  cent,  60  days,  with  6  per  cent  per  annum  for  antici- 
pation.    These  terms  are  supposed  to  be  standard,  but  the  class  of 


>^ 


SELLING    CONDITIONS. 


243 


\  y 


j-T 


merchandise  handled,  reputation  of  the  house,  importance  of  the 
account,  and  other  conditions  enter  into  the  terms  of  discount, 
dating,  etc.  Special  terms  are  frequently  made  to  important  custo- 
mers, and  salesmen  are  often  permitted  to  make  concessions  in  dis- 
counts and  datings  in  order  to  obtain  new  customers,  or  to  make 

impor tan i;  sales.  ,,^    .  ,  ,.  >< 

The  following  is  quoted  from  the  paper  on    Uatmgs  and  discounts, 
by  Ira  D.  Kingsbury,  read  before  the  convention  of  the  National 
Association  of  Clothiers  at  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  June  1  and  2,  1914: 

Some  one  has  said  that  cash  discounts,  as  we  know  them  to-day,  were  established  a 
CTeat  many  years  ago,  before  the  methods  of  transportation  were  as  adequate  as  they 
now  are,  and  that  they  resulted  from  the  needs  of  the  far-away  merchant  for  quick 
payment  for  his  t,'ood8,  which  in  the  old  days  were  many  months  m  transit.  Other- 
wise, long  time  had  to  be  given  and  a  period  of  many  months  elapsed  before  the  trader 
received  his  money.  Profits  in  those  days  were  enormous  and  cash  discoun'  pro- 
portionately large.  .       ,    ,.  ..         i  j  *u       v. 

If  this  is  a  true  statement  of  the  origin  of  cash  discounts,  it  would  seem  as  thougn 
we  in  the  clothing  industry  had  made  little  or  no  progress  in  our  terms  of  sale.  I  am 
not  in  position  to  give  the  reasons  why  the  present  long  t«rms  that  are  prevalent  in 
the  industry  were  established,  but  they  probably  arose  from  the  necessity  of  assisting 
the  pioneer  merchant  so  that  he  might  carry  a  more  complete  stock  than  he  could 
have  done  otherwiso  and  also  so  that  he  could  turn  the  greater  portion  of  that  stock 
into  money  before  the  bill  l>ecame  due.  The  result  has  been  to  place  the  manufac- 
turer of  clothing  almost  in  the  position  of  a  banker.  The  manufacturer,  therefore, 
practically  supplies  the  capital  for  a  large  percentage  of  his  customers,  and  is  thus 
rendering  a  service  which  should  not  be  a  part  of  merchandising,  but  which  should 
be  rendered  in  the  channels  regularly  organized  for  furnishing  financial  aid  to  the 

merchant.  ,  .  ^,  u    i  •       • 

One  of  the  evils  of  this  practice  has  been  and  is  to  encourage  the  embarking  m 
business  by  men  with  inadequate  capital,  who  expect  the  manufacturer  to  carry  their 
account  and  who  depend  upon  turmng  the  merchandise  into  cash  before  the  manu- 
facturer's account  becomes  due.  In  times  when  trade  is  brisk,  this  may  often  work 
out  satisfactorily;  when  trade  is  restricted  and  goods  do  not  move  seasonably,  the 
merchant  in  this  position  finds  himself  with  his  bills  maturing  and  without  funds  to 
meet  them.  The  manufacturer,  who  has  depended  upon  his  payments  coming  in  at 
a  stated  time,  in  turn  finds  himself  compelled  to  extend  additional  time  and  is  often 
forced  to  rely  upon  his  Ijanker  to  finance  himself.  This  leads  to  an  abnormal  number 
of  failures,  and  I  believe  an  analysis  of  the  failures  in  our  industry  would  show  that 
a  very  large  percentage  of  them  is  caused  by  lack  of  capital  on  the  part  of  the  merchant. 
We  often  find  a  man  with  $3,000  to  $5,000  cash  starting  in  business  with  the  expecta- 
tion of  carrying  a  $12,000  to  $15,000  stock  of  merchandise  and  who  invests  50  to  60 
pt^r  cent  of  his  available  capital  in  fixing  up  his  store.  The  final  end  of  this  man  is 
easy  to  sec.  But  the  mad  race  to  sell  goods  causes  us  constantly  to  take  a  chance  on 
this  man-  by  doing  this  we  help  swell  the  financial  death  list  in  our  industry. 

This  condition  tends  to  create  unfair  competition  by  throwing  on  the  market  bank- 
rupt stocks,  which  are  sold  at  a  price  that  creates  competition  which  is  impossible  to 

meet.  ,  .        u  i.  ^    • 

It  seems  to  me  that  our  present  terms  of  sale,  where  accounts  mature  but  twice  a 
year,  in  the  months  of  June  and  Deceml)er,  tend  to  heighten  this  condition.  This 
also  creates  a  condition  which  is  by  many  retailers  forced  upon  the  manufacturer 
who,  through  fear  of  competition,  countenances  the  practice  of  the  taking  by  a  retailer 
of  an  excessive  cash  disL-ount— a  discount  not  contemplated  at  the  time  the  goods 
were  sold— which  gives  the  recipient  of  this  excessive  discount  a  decided  advantage 
over  his  competitor,  who  stands  loyally  by  his  agreement  and  considers  the  terms  of 
sale  an  agreement  to  be  lived  up  to  without  equivocation  or  question. 

All  of  us  have  had  experience  with  the  man  who  places  a  large  order,  and  when  the 
account  finally  l)ecomos  due  makes  a  demand  for  terms  which  were  not  contemplated 
at  the  time  the  order  was  placed,  and  who,  by  obtaining  a  concession  from  one  house, 
uses  it  as  a  lever  to  obtain  similar  concessions  from  other  houses,  creating  a  conditiop/ 
of  competition  which  is  not  ethical  and  which  requires  considerable  force  of  character 
to  combat  successfully.  u     *    j 

Our  present  terms  of  sale,  which  are  practically  uniform  throughout  the  trade, 
compel  us  to  use  an  abnormal  amount  of  capiUl  in  proportion  to  the  returns,  and  com- 
pel us  to  carry  open  accounts  on  our  books  to  an  excessive  amount;  and  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  the  manufacturers  and  dealers  in  raw  materials  are  constantly  reducing 


>J-A 


244 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


both  their  datings  and  cash  diacounta,  we  are  forced  to  carry  a  financial  load  which 
miirht  be  obviated  were  it  possible  for  us  to  market  our  product  on  shorter  teraw, 
more  clearly  in  keeping  with  those  houses  from  which  we  buy  our  raw  materials.  Aa 
it  stands  to-day,  labor,  cloth,  and  trimmings  must  be  paid  for  in  cash  and  we  must 
have  sufficient  capital  to  finance  an  entire  season's  product  before  bills  come  due. 
We  find  that  both  our  labor  and  material  expenditures  extend  over  on  the  succeeding 
season,  and  I  believe  you  will  all  agree  with  me  that,  with  the  increase  in  cost  of  pro- 
duction in  our  Unes,  the  percentage  of  returns  on  our  sales  is  not  adequate  for  the 
amount  of  capital  that  it  is  necessary  to  employ  even  in  a  moderate-sized  business. 
Were  it  not  that  a  good  percentage  of  our  customers  are  so  situated  and  so  tmance 
their  business  that  they  are  in  position  to  take,  and  do  take,  the  very  best  cash  dis- 
counts available,  we  would  find^ourselves  compelled  to  strain  our  own  credit  in  order 

to  meet  the  demands  of  our  business.  r«i-       *  m        u    ^  «- 

It  has  occurred  to  me  that  our  terms  invite  controversy     The  ret^ler  who  does 

not  discount  his  bill  promptly  in  June  and  December  considers  that  he  is  imposed 

upon  when  he  is  comp-lled  to  forfeit  the  full  7  per  cent  cash  discount,  and  if  he  does 

not  pay  that  bill  until  60,  90,  or  120  days  afterwards,  the  large  cash  discount  we  allow 

takes  it  out  of  the  plan^  of  an  interest  charge.  .      .•    i     j-         ..„« 

Those  of  us  who  sell  on  dating  consider  that  the  case  discount  entirely  disappears 

within  four  months  from  dating,  and  all  sorts  of  pleas  are  made  by  th«  customer  to 

save  as  much  of  his  discount  as  possible.    Those  customers  who  are  addicted  to  the 

practice  of  givijig  notes  expect  that  in  giving  a  note  on  which  they  oay  interest  at 

the  rate  of  6  per  cent  per  annum  they  have  paid  all  they  ought  to  be  aslved  for  the  use 

of  that  monc'y  and  still  insist  on  having  a  full  cash  discount,  thus  creating  a  new 

contract,  which  under  ordinary  rules  of  trade  should  not  carry  the  terms  of  tho  original 

a<-n^ement.    We  have  all  of  us  had  experience  with  the  fellow  who  puts  a  new  front 

in  his  store  or  puts  in  new  fixtures  or  erects  a  building  and  wants  us  to  help  him  finance 

it  bv  giving  him  an  extra  2  or  3  per  cent  in  cash  discount  and  then  >yait  30  or  60  davs 

l>eyond  the  agreed  time,  and  who,  notwithstanding  the  dolay  inDaving.  insists  on  the 

concession.    We  know  how  difficult  it  is  to  meet  conditions  of  this  kind   and  it  is 

only  another  instance  of  our  terms  of  sale  being  the  reason  for  bringing  trouble  around 

us     I  have  in  mind  one  man  who  asked  for  a  cash  donation  of  $500  to  help  fat  up  his 

store,  and  it  was  an  account  that  was  not  worth  morc  than  $7,000  to  $8,000  per  annum 

"^I  beli^vlTl  ^warranted  in  saying  that  our  line  is  practically  the  only  line  of  trade 
that  has  not  materially  shortened  the  dating  and  reduced  the  amount  of  cash  dis- 
count     The  question  is,  Wiy  do  manufacturers  of  clothing  sell  their  product  oi\ 
pnicticallv  the  same  basis  that  they  sold  it  40  years  ago?     In  evenr  other  department 
of  our  business  we  have  advanced  and  have  kept  abreast  of  the  developments  of  the 
times     I  am  sensible  of  the  fact  that  there  are  some  houses  having  the  nerve  and 
foresi^'ht  to  reduce  their  terms  of  sale,  and  I  want  to  congratulate-  them  on  their  posi- 
tion in  this  matter,  for  I  U'lit^ve  that  in  times  of  failuro  tiiose  merchants  who  adhere 
to  what  I  have  mentioned  as  the  established  terms  in  our  tr»de  arc  usually  the  large 
creditors  and  have  had  the  knowledge  thrust  upon  them  that  the  short-term  houses, 
V)Oth  in  our  Une  and  in  kindred  lines,  have  been  receiving  money  for  months  past  that 
was  in  a  very  large  measure  for  merchandis'?  such  as  we  furnished,  while  our  accounts 
stand  in  toto  l>ecause  our  terms  of  sale  give  merchants  the  right  to  withhold  payment. 
It  may  sound  revolutionary  and  the  clothing  industry  may  bo  so  Ued  down  by 
traditioiis  that  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  change,  but  tiie  idea  has  appealed  to  me 
strongly  that  sooner  or  later,  if  we  are  to  receive  tiie  full  measure  of  success,  some 
radical  change  must  l^e  made  in  our  terms  of  sales.    We  should  place  ourselves  on  a 
par  with  other  lines,  some  as  important  and  some  not  as  important  in  volume  of  output 
as  ours,  in  endeavoring  to  correct  those  evils  which  appeal  to  us  all,  and  which  seem 
to  be  ^'rowing  and  which  make  it  each  day  more  difficult  for  us  to  operate  under  an 
estabUshed  poUcy  with  tiie  idea  of  a  scjuare  deal  for  every  man,  to  give  no  advantage 
to  anyone,  and  to  preserve  our  own  integrity. 


/ 


How  to  dispose  of  goods  left  on  the  hands  of  the  manufacturer  at 
the  end  of  the  season  is  a  problem  in  the  industry.  A  manufacturer 
may  use  bad  judgment  and  make  up  patterns  or  styles  for  stock 
that  do  not  take.  In  this  case  he  has  a  large  stock  on  hand  at  the 
end  of  the  season,  which  it  is  necessary  to  get  nd  of  m  order  to 
make  his  loss  as  small  as  possible.  #  *    x 

Cancellations  and  returns  are  also  the  cause  of  manufacturers 
finding  themselves  with  a  stock  of  left-over  goods  on  hand.     If  the 


! 


J. 


SELLING   CONDITIONS. 


245 


VI  y 


■— <r»-^ 


t< 


u 


^ 


*"^ 


season  is  a  good  one  and  the  demand  active,  goods  will  move  more 
freely  and  the  amount  of  ''left  overs"  is  small.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  bad  season,  caused  by  a  mild  winter  or  depressed  business  condi- 
tions, will  cause  a  large  amount  of  left-over  goods. 

Most  manufacturers  attempt  to  work  off  returns,  or  any  other 
goods  that  would  be  "left  overs"  at  the  end  of  the  season,  through 
the  regular  season  and  as  early  in  the  season  as  possible.  Much  is 
disposed  of  by  filling  regular  orders  from  this  stock,  and  if  the  manu- 
facturer is  lucky  enough  to  work  off  returns  in  this  way  little  loss 
is  occasioned.  Styles  which  in  the  opinion  of  the  manufacturer  will 
be  "repeaters" — that  is,  will  be  popular  the  following  season— are 
carried  over,  as  are  also  the  staple  lines.  At  the  end  ot  each  season, 
however,  there  is  usually  an  accumulation  of  goods  which  it  is  not 
advisable  to  carry  over  to  the  next  season.  Goods  that  can  not  be 
disposed  of  in  the  manner  indicated  are  sold  in  various  ways,  fre- 
quently at  a  loss.  1    J     ^  J- 

Shipping  goods  on  consignment  is  one  method  of  disposing  of 
"left  overs."  The  customer  is  requested  to  try  to  sell  as  much  of 
the  shipment  as  possible  and  to  return  such  goods  as  can  not  be 
disposed  of  to  the  factory.  Usually  the  manufacturer  fixes  a  mini- 
mum price  below  which  no  goods  may  be  sold,  but  sometimes  the 
retailer  is  instructed  to  sell  at  any  price  that  can  be  obtained.  Cer- 
tain stores  in  almost  every  city  make  a  practice  at  the  end  of  the 
season  of  buying  up  at  a  low  price,  or  taking  on  consignment,  large 
quantities  of  left-over  stock  and  having  sales.  Jobbers  and  mail- 
order houses  buy  considerable  amounts  of  loft-over  goods,  and  some 
houses  make  a  practice  of  disposing  of  "left  overs  '  through  these 
channels.  Large  department  stores,  it  was  said,  are  always  in  the 
market  for  left-over  stock,  but  demand  greatly  reduced  prices. 

In  nearly  all  instances  left-over  goods  are  sold  at  a  sacrifice,  and 

fenerally  the  manufacturer  is  glad  if  he  can  get  cost  out  of  them, 
t  was  stated  by  a  number  of  manufacturers  that  they  sold  this  class 
of  goods  at  prices  varying  from  33  J  per  cent  to  40  or  50  per  cent  below 
estabhshed  prices.  The  manufacturer  is  alwajrs  anxious  to  dispose 
of  his  "left-overs"  as  soon  as  possible,  for  depreciation  in  value  is  very 
rapid,  and  the  longer  a  stock  of  this  description  is  held  the  greater  ^ 
the  loss. 

One  manufacturer  had  the  following  to  say  on  the  subject  of  left- 
over goods: 

All  manufacturers  are  naturally  anxious  to  get  the  same  prices  for  goods  left  over  as 
they  have  been  getting  throughout  the  season,  but  there  again  the  unscrupulous 
methods  of  competition  enter.  The  unscrupulous  buyer  takes  advantage  of  such  a 
situation  and  dnves  the  hardest  sort  of  bargaining.  It  has  become  a  very  ordinary 
thing  for  the  buyers  during  these  periods  to  ask  anywhere  from  25  to  50  per  cent  off  the 
price,  simply  because  the  season  is  somewhat  late. 

The  overdriving  of  capital  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  clothing  has  a  great  deal 
to  do  with  and  is  responsible  in  a  measure  for  a  great  many  abuses  in  the  trade.  For 
illustration :  A  man  with  an  authorized  capital  of  |50,000  will  try  tx)  do  a  business  of  at 
least  $500,000,  and  in  many  instances  sella  enough  to  make  up  that  amount;  and  that 
sort  of  manufacturer  naturally,  if  he  finds  himself  with  any  kind  of  merchandise  on 
hand,  must  turn  it  over  quickly,  realizing  whatever  he  can  on  it,  and  unfortunately  a 
great  many  manufacturers  are  situated  that  way.  Some  retailers  will  buy  50  per  cent 
of  their  needs  in  the  regular  way  and  deliberately  state  at  the  time  the  purchase  is 
being  made  that  they  will  expect  to  buy  the  other  50  per  cent  at  reduced  prices  of  25 
to  40  per  cent,  and  unless  the  houses  they  do  business  with  will  accommodate  them 
with  tnis  reduced-price  merchandise,  they  withhold  some  of  their  purchases. 


^ 


m 


246 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


SELLING   CONDITIONS. 


247 


f       ^ 


k 


Weather  conditions  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  trade  in  general.  An  early 
spring,  when  business  conditions  are  normal,  naturally  \vill  produce  a  hoav>r  demand 
for  spring  goods,  An  early  fall  has  the  same  effect  on  fall  trade.  A  cold  winter  will 
decrease  a  stock  of  overcoats  everywhere  and  a  mild  winter  will  naturally  produce  the 
reverse  result. 

TBADE  ABUSES. 

A  manufacturer  may  spend  a  great  deal  of  time  and  money  in  effi- 
ciency and  cost  systems,  employ  the  best  factory  supervision,  and 
still  lose  money,  owing  to  an  inefFicient  sales  organization.  The  sell- 
ing and  distributing  cost  is  the  heaviest  overhead  expense  the  manu- 
facturer of  men's  clothing  has  to  meet,  and  without  expert  supervision 
and  scientific  management  heavy  losses  often  occur  in  this  department. 

The  following  is  quoted  from  the  address  delivered  by  Mr.  David 
Kirschbaum  on  ''How  to  make  the  sales  department  more  efficient" 
before  the  annual  convention  of  the  National  Association  of  Clothiers 
at  AUantic  City ,  N.  J.,  June  1  and  2, 1914: 

The  manufacturing  clothing  industry,  if  I  am  correctly  informed,  ranks  sixth  or 
seventh  in  importance  in  America,  yet  it  is  the  last  of  all  big  businesses  to  recognize 
the  necessity  for  scientific  sales  management.  As  best  proof  of  the  above,  I  thnik  1  am 
safe  in  saving  that  up  to  two  or  three  years  ago,  sales  managers  in  the  true  sense  were 
practically  unknown  in  the  industry,  and  if  you  were  to  try  to-day  to  obtain  the  serv- 
ices of  a  thorough  sales  expert  in  our  line,  you  would  find  that  onl  v  three  or  four,  or  at 
the  most  five  concerns  have  such  executives,  and  that  at  best,  they  have  only  been 
en«nured  in  the  work  the  past  few  years.  The  radical  changes  that  have  been  and  are 
BtiTl  taking  place  in  the  industry  have  made  it  necessarv  for  us  to  obtiiin  the  services 
of  the  most  capable  executives  to  direct  our  credit,  designing,  manufacturing  and 
tailoring  departments,  yet  in  that  most  important  department  of  sales,  what  is  the 

^*  Is  it  not  true  that  it  is  generally  under  the  supervision  of  a  member  of  the  firm,  whose 
ereatest  claim  to  capability  lies  m  the  fact  that  he  has  had  some  road  experience?  Ue 
mav  have  been  an  excellent  salesman,  but  what  about  being  a  good  executive?  Is  he 
likely  to  be  a  good  general  who  inspires  confidence  and  enthusiasm,  a  good  statistician, 
an  analyst,  a  clever  judge  of  men,  etc.? 

Vital  changes  have  taken  place  in  manufacturing  men's  clothing 
during  the  last  decade,  and  the  manufacturer  has  had  to  meet  these 
chant'ed  conditions  in  order  to  keep  pace  with  his  competitors.  It 
is  surprising  to  find  that  manufacturers  who  are  abreast  of  the  times 
as  far  as  the  manufacturing  of  clothing  is  concerned,  cling  to  prece- 
dents set  years  ago  in  the  marketing  of  their  product. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  more  money  is  wasted  in  the  sales  department 
than  in  any  other  department  of  the  clothing  industry.  However,  it 
was  stated  by  numbers  of  manufacturers  interviewed  on  the  subject, 
that  it  would  not  be  possible  to  reduce  selling  expenses  without  a  com- 
plete revolution  of  selling  methods.  On  account  of  fierce  competi- 
tion and  the  rapid  growth  of  the  industry  in  recent  years,  certain 
evils  have  been  allowed  to  creep  into  the  business  which  are  almost 
impossible  to  eliminate,  and  the  manufacturer  who  stands  out  alone 
against  these  evil  practices  will  find  himself  in  a  very  difficult  position. 

Many  remedies  have  been  suggested,  and  the  National  Association 
of  Clothiers  has  taken  steps  that  have  accomphshed  good  results. 
However,  until  the  manufacturers  get  closer  together  and  there  is 
more  cooperation  between  manufacturers  and  retailers,  it  is  hard  to 
see  that  much  economy  can  be  effected  in  selhng  costs,  or  that  the 
numerous  evils  will  be  eliminated  from  the  industry. 

The  principal  evils  in  the  industry,  with  which  the  manufacturere 
seem  unable  to  cope,  are  the  following:  Cancellations,  returns  and 


<\:h 


— ^^— 


^{^ 


y 


f^i 


allowances,  revisions,  indiscriminate  extending  of  credit,  extra  dis-    i 
counts  and  dating,  buying  on  one  basis  and  settling  on  another,  J 
concessions  to  secure  new  accounts,  consignment  shipments,  memo;/ 
randum  orders,  long  future  delivery,  etc.  „     ^ 

The  most  insidious  of  these  evils  are  cancellations  and  returns  and  ^ 
allowances.  One  of  the  principal  causes  that  leads  to  cancellation  is  .^^^ 
long  future  delivery.  With  three  to  six  months  elapsing  from  the 
time  the  order  is  taken  to  the  time  when  dehvery  is  made,  many 
things  may  come  up  that  will  cause  the  buyer  to  change  his  mind  and 
revise  or  cancel  the  order.  The  buyer  may  decide  he  has  made  too 
heavy  a  purchase,  or  he  may  see  some  goods  he  likes  better,  or  some 
financial  difficulty  may  intervene  of  which  he  had  no  knowledge  when 
he  gave  the  order,  or  any  one  of  a  number  of  contingencies  may  arise 
which  will  lead  to  cancellation. 

The  buyer,  knowing  that,  as  a  rule,  the  manufacturer  will  stand  lor 
cancellation,  is  not  slow  to  take  advantage  of  the  fact,  and  any  pre- 
text is  considered  sufficient  excuse  to  cancel  an  order  accepted  m 
good  faith.  This  has  led  to  reckless  ordering,  and  it  can  be  said  that 
the  manufacturer  is  not  always  blameless.  Often  salesmen  m  their 
eagerness  to  take  orders  and  earn  commissions  will  mduce  retailers 
to  buy  more  than  they  can  possibly  use,  hoping  that  if  any  cancella- 
tions are  made,  they  wiU  be  on  orders  from  other  houses. 

There  are  a  few  manufacturers  who  claim  that  they  will  not  accept 
cancellations,  but  the  number  is  very  small.  The  extent  of  competi- 
tion in  the  industry  leads  manufacturers  to  accept  cancellations  and 
returns  and  allowances.  They  know  that  the  customer  will  turn  to 
the  numerous  concerns  in  the  industry  that  will  stand  for  such  prac- 
tices, and,  rather  than  lose  the  account,  they  will  put  up  with  demands 
that  are  often  entirely  unreasonable. 

Among  some  manufacturers  it  is  the  custom  to  delay  making  up 
goods  until  the  retailer  has  an  opportunity  to  revise  his  order.  Some- 
times they  delay  long  enough  to  allow  time  for  two  revisions,  and  then 
start  in  to  manufacture  with  more  certainty  that  the  order  will  not 
be  canceled.  This  practice  of  delay  for  protection,  however,  is  a 
great  inconvenience  to  the  manufacturer,  as  it  causes  ''rush  work" 
and  prevents  an  even  distribution  of  production  over  the  manufac- 
turing season.  In  speaking  of  these  trade  abuses  a  manufacturer 
said: 

The  extent  of  the  trade  abuses  of  cancellations  and  returns  in  this  industry  can 
hardly  be  exaggerated.  Manufacturers  seem  unable  to  cope  with  the  situation,  and 
retailers  apparently  can  practice  these  abuses  at  will.  The  manufacturer  claims  that 
retailers  make  claims  of  defects  or  any  excuse  for  returning  the  goods.  Very  often  at 
the  end  of  the  season  when  they  find  they  have  stock  left  over  they  return  it  to  the 
manufacturer  Th e  fact  that  competition  is  so  very  keen  causes  th is,  as  manufacturers 
know  that  if  these  demands  are  not  met,  of  whatever  nature  they  may  be,  a  customer 
is  lost,  and  some  other  manufacturer  will  obtain  him.  As  a  result,  almost  any  demand 
a  retailer  makes  is  agreed  to. 

The  following  is  quoted  from  an  address  by  Mr.  David  Kirschbaum 
on  ''How  to  make  the  sales  department  more  efficient,"  dehvered 
before  the  annual  convention  of  the  National  Association  of  Clothiers, 
June  1  and  2,  1914: 

A  clever  sales  executive  will  probably  tell  you  that  one  of  the  largest  items  of  loss 
directly  due  to  sales  inefficiency  is  that  which  accrues  annually  from  the  deliberate 
encouragement  a  number  of  salesmen  give  the  trade  at  the  time  of  booking  their  orders, 
when  they  tell  the  retailer  he  can  select  whatever  he  likes  with  perfect  safety,  because 


* 


^VJ^^ 


^ 


248 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


SELLING   CONDITIONS. 


249 


QrS^ 


the  salesman  knows  the  house  will  necessarily  accept  the  cancellation  (no  matter  when 
it  comes)  for  fear  of  losing  the  account.     It  was  said  at  one  of  our  recent  conventions 
that  the  average  (annual)  cancellation  (this  includes  revisions,  of  course)  for  all  manii-    • 
facturers  was  about  20  per  cent.    Just  think  what  that  means:  One-fifth  of  all  the 
time,  effort,  and  money  expended  to  secure  your  entire  business  is  regularly  wasted 

^^We^re^agreed  that  cancellations  can  not  be  entirely  eliminated .  However,  the  evil 
being  largely  in  the  making  of  our  representatives,  careful  eductition  and  discip  me 
and  possibly  some  method  of  penalizing  the  incorrigible  salesmen,  will  bring  marked 
changes  for  the  better.  The  tremendous  variation  in  the  percentage  of  cancellations 
in  adjoining  States  and  in  identical  territories  proves  that  this  subject  is  a  fruitful 

field  for  a  capable  executive.  ,  .     ,        ,       i     u  u    *u 

It  mic^ht  be  said  here  that  no  salesman  is  doing  his  duty  bv  the  house  or  by  the 
retailer  when  he  deliberatelv  sells  the  retailer  more  goods  than  he  knows  that  retailer 
can  use  to  advantage,  and  where  the  salesman  is  guilty  of  such  practices,  it  can  only 
brin**  one  of  two  unprofitable  results— the  return  of  the  merchandise  and  the  loss  inci- 
dent^hereto,  or  the  overstocking  of  the  retailer,  whose  opportunity  to  dispose  of  same 

L«  also  restricted  to  a  loss.  .^  j  i    xi.       *  m  -»    ♦«„  j« 

The  selUng  of  models  or  fabrics  that  are  absolutely  unsuited  to  the  retailer  s  trade 
deserves  far  more  consideration  than  this  subject  has  had  at  our  hands  in  the  past. 
A  thoroughly  capable  salesman  will  study  his  customers  requirements  and  will  help 
them  make  the  most  intelligent  selection,  thereby  assisting  retailers  to  that  extent  m 
m^keting  a  greater  percentage  of  their  purchases  at  a  profit.  The  intelligent  sales- 
man will  protect  both  the  retailer  and  manufacturer  by  helping  the  former  exercise 
S^  nTce^^ry  care  in  his  purchases.  He  should  be  informed  not  only  as  to  correct 
style"  for  that  particular  territory,  but  if  possible  also  as  to  the  latest  retailing  methods. 
HO  as  to  help  such  retailers  as  may  be  in  need  of  intelligent  and  hon-^st  advice. 

Further  than  that,  I  believe  the  successful  wholesale  clothing  salesman  of  the  future 
will  require  technical  knowledge  ncces.sary  to  di.'^criminate  between  good  and  pcx)r 
dothing  so  as  t«  be  in  a  position  to  pass  that  knowledge  on  to  the  retailer  who  to-day 
L  Wuily  lacking  in  this  particular,  and  who  in  turn  needs  this  knowledge  to  dis- 
criminate  between  what  is  good,  mediocre,  or  very  poor.  u-  „^ 

Y^ur  sales  executive  would  probably  give. attention  also  to  tbe  old-fashioned 
method  still  practiced  by  many  salesmen,  tiiat  of  spending  a  brief  half  day,  or  at  most  a 
dav  in  studW  the  m\>dels,  the  fabrics,  and  afl  details  covering  same,  instead  of 
devoting  two  or  three  whole  days  to  a  full  understanding  of  all  important  features,  and 
«)  be  in  a  po.sition  to  do  his  work  thoroughly,  and  thereby  get  maximum  results  out  of 

'"'TheT^'is  nll^^^^^^  thousands  upon  thousands  of  garment^s  are  now  unneces- 

Karily  cut  special  that  would  otherwise  be  cut,  tnmmed    and  tailored  with  regukr 
Xck  lots  if  the  salesmen  were  properly  informed  on  all  the  details  of  their  lines  and 

'''frr^'arrminy  pfil^f  suaTtiJe  ^  liberal  compensation  paid  wholesale 

clothing  salesmen,  the  lavish  methods  of  many,  the  unreasonableness  of  manu  ac- 
tureri  Lumin-  the  entire  risk  of  maximum  drawing  accounts  to  sale-men  and  the  loss 
SenUhS  when  there  are  crop  failures,  industrial  depression,  or  financial  panics 
the  di^rediting  of  your  line  in  a  community  by  reason  of  it^  having  been  placed  with 
an  undesirable  ret^ler  or  one  to  whose  business  your  product  is  entirely  unsuited,  and 
manvothe?  subjects,  all  of  which  should  receive  our  most  careful  consideratmn,  and 
Tt  the  hands  of  an  experienced  and  capable  man  obtain  for  us  a  much  higher  efficiency 
on  the  Pt  of  oiir  salesmen  and  very  substantial  economies  in  our  sales  department. 

Revision  of  orders  is  often  the  cause  of  loss  to  manufacturers.  If 
the  order  is  revised  before  the  goods  have  been  cut  or  are  in  work, 
there  is  of  course  no  loss,  but  late  revisions  after  the  goods  are  in 
nrocess  of  manufacture  cause  "left  overs." 

Indiscriminate  extending  of  credit,  next  to  canceUations  and  returns 
and  allowances,  is  perhaps  the  greatest  evil  m  the  industry.  Ihis 
condition  is  entirely  due  to  the  tremendous  competition  m  the  busi- 
ness  and  the  desire  of  manufacturers  to  secure  new  accounts. 

The  reckless  extei.ding  of  credit  not  only  leads  to  losses  due  to  fail- 
ures, bad  debts,  and  slow  payment  but  is  one  of  the  causes  of  cancel- 
lations and  returns  and  allowances.     A  manufacturer  had  the  follow- 
,ing  to  say  regarding  credits: 


-4^ 


V 


•  -J 


■y 


r 


\ 


'iK 


OoY^A**^^""-^ 


One  of  the  greatest  curses  of  the  business  ^.^^l^^^'^^.^^J^^^^^^f^.^^^f^ 
turers  to  retailers.    These  have  grown  more  liberal  right  along,  until  almost  anyone 
can  get  into  the  retail  business  and  get  credit  from  P^^^^^^^^^^'^,;    .^.  „  „_^u  ^v^ 
On  account  of  tiiis  a  vast  number  of  men  are  m  business  ajd  receiving  ^[^^i^^^^^ 
have  no  abilitv  to  carrv  out  what  they  attempt.    These  conditions  have  attractecl  a 
^1  SLny  w^o'^re^'S  hoLt.     AltoU-,  manufacturer,  -^l^^l-^^^^^^^ 
lo  much  as  to  put  their  selling  on  a  cost  basis  and  do  business  with  business  men  only, 
and  this  would  happen  if  a  cost  basis  could  be  adopted. 

Demands  for  extra  discounts  and  datings  on  the  part  of  retailors  are 
generaUy  complained  of  by  manufacturers.  These  concessions  are  /c- 
often  granted  to  hold  an  account,  and  it  is  said  this  evil  is  more  prev- 
alent in  the  industry  than  ever  before.  Often,  it  is  said,  retailers 
buy  on  one  basis  and  wish  to  settle  on  another.  The  order  is  taken 
in  good  faith  on  the  part  of  the  manufacturer  and  after  the  goods  are 
delivered,  the  customer  makes  certam  demands  for  extra  concessions, 
which  the  manufacturer  has  to  grant  in  order  to  prevent  a  return 

Concessions  to  secure  new  accounts  are  comraon  m  the  mdustry. 
To  secure  a  new  account,  salesmen  often  give  the  customer  advan- 
tages in  the  way  of  discounts,  datings,  etc^  or  tell  him  that  the  house 
will  stand  for  returns  or  cancellations.  This  practice  works  against 
the  manufacturer  every  time.  A  new  account  secured  in  this  way 
always  proves  uncertain  and  unsatisfactory.  The  customer,  having 
been  granted  these  concessions  in  the  begmnmg,  will  always  expect 
the  same  terms  and  wiU  continually  make  unreasonable  demands 

Consignment  shipments  and  memorandum  orders,  while  good  metn- 
ods  of  disposing  oi  left-over  goods,  are  on  the  other  l^^nd  a  distinct  f^^f 
disadvantage  to  the  manufacturer.  Retaders,  kiiowmg  that  they  will 
be  able  to  replenish  their  stock  near  the  end  of  the  season  at  reduced 
prices  through  these  shipments,  place  smaUer  mitial  orders  at  the 
regular  terms.  It  is  without  doubt  a  fact  that  consigimient  ship- 
ments and  memorandum  orders  are  an  evd  ni  every  mdustry. 

Long  future  deUvery,  as  previously  stated,  ls  the  principal  cause 
of  canceUations,  returns,  and  allowances,  and  other  evds  m  the  busi-  . 

ness.     The  manufacture  of  men's  clothing  is  necessardy  a  slow  pro-  yy^        A 
cess,  considermg  the  time  t^ken  to  get  cloth  from  the  woolen  mdls  and 
the  time  consumed  in  making  up  the  goods.     However,  manufac- 
turers are  in  a  way  to  blame  for  long  future  delivery.     In  consequence 
of  the  desire  of  some  manufacturers  to  get  their  Imes  before  the  retail- 
ers ahead  of  their  competitors,  salesmen  start  out  on  the  road  earlier 
each  vear.     This  of  course  has  the  effect  of  causing  a  longer  time  to 
elapse  between  the  time  the  order  is  taken  and  the  date  of  delivery. 
For  mstance,  salesmen  will  start  out  in  October  to  take  orders  for 
the  following  sprmg  and  summer  season,  when  the  retailers  have  not 
vet  begun  to  move  their  winter  goods.     It  can  readdy  be  seen  that 
the  retailer  is  not  in  a  position  at  that  time  to  know  exactlv  what  he 
wiU  need  for  the  following  season.     As  yet  he  has  sold  only  a  small 
part  of  his  winter  stock  and  he  is  unable  to  know  how  this  stock  will 
move,  which  is  necessarily  a  factor  in  placing  sprmg  and  summer  bus- 
iness.    It  should  further  be  considered  that  it  is  not  always  the  farst 
salesman  in  the  field  that  secures  the  orders.     The  retailer  may  wish 
to  have  the  chance  to  look  over  several  lines  before  he  determines 
where  he  will  buv.     In  the  event  that  the  early  salesman  secures  an 
order,  the  next  salesman  who  comes  along  may  have  a  line  that  in 
the  estimation  of  the  retailer  is  more  attractive,  or  he  may  offer  better 
terms   either  of  which  may  lead  to  a  cancellation  of  the  hrst  order. 


M 


¥ 


250 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


Without  doubt  the  manufacturers  would  do  a  better  and  more  sat- 
isfactory business  if  they  would  give  the  retailer  a  chance  to  get  rid 
of  at  least  some  ot  one  season's  stock  before  they  tried  to  seU  him  the 
next.  There  would  be  fewer  cancellation*,  returns,  allowances,  and 
revisions,  and  the  retailer  would  be  in  a  better  position  to  give  an 
intelligent  order  than  when  he  is  approached  so  earlv  ui  the  season. 

The  following  table  compiled  from  data  obtained  from  the  22  estab- 
lishments that  furnished  complete  information  shows  the  proportion 
of  returns  and  cancellations  to  net  sales,  the  percentage  based  on  net 
sales  of  estimated  loss  from  returns  and  allowances  and  cancella- 
tions, the  percentage  of  manufacturing  profit  and  final  profit  (based 
on  net  sales)  actually  received,  and  the  manufacturing  profit  and 
final  profit  plus  the  total  estimated  loss  from  returns  and  allowances 
and  cancellations.  As  it  was  not  possible  to  arrive  at  the  exact 
losses  due  to  returns  and  allowances  and  cancellations,  the  figures 
submitted  in  the  table  represent  the  manufacturers'  estimates  of 
their  losses  due  to  these  causes: 

Table  52. — Effect  of  Returns  and  Allowances  and  Cancellations  on  Profits. 


Total, 

Esti- 
mated 
lass  on 
returns 

and 
allow- 

Manu- 

Returns 

returns 
and 

Esti- 
mated 
loss  on 
cancel- 
lations. 

Total 

Manu- 

factur- 
ing 

Final 
profit 

Establish- 

and 

Cancel- 

allow- 

esti- 

factur- 

Final 

profit 

plus 

ment. 

allow- 
ances. 

lations. 

ances 

and 

cancel- 

mated 
loss. 

ing 
profit. 

profit. 

plus 
total  es- 
timated 

total  es- 
timated 
loss. 

. 

lations. 

ances. 

loss. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Per  cent. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

PercerU. 

Percent. 

Per  cent. 

No.  3 

4.02 

21.20 

25.22 

0.81 

1.06 

1.87 

6.79 

6.65 

8.66 

8.52 

No.  4 

.21 

1.05 

1.26 

.02 

.11 

.13 

6.50 

5.96 

6.63 

6.08 

No.  11 

7.55 

14.27 

21.82 

2.52 

.14 

2.66 

5.87 

5.74 

8.53 

8.40 

No.  13 

8.53 

10.84 

19.37 

.87 

.43 

1.30 

2.01 

.49 

3.31 

1.79 

No.  14 

5.33 

12.78 

18.11 

1.60 

3.20 

4.80 

5.20 

4.32 

10.00 

9.12 

No.  15 

3.77 

5.99 

9.76 

1.26 

L98 

3.25 

O.40 

a  1.15 

2.85 

2.10 

No.  17 

9.26 

6.77 

16.03 

.93 

.14 

L07 

5.03 

5.01 

6.10 

6.08 

No.  18 

7.01 

14.06 

2L07 

.98 

1.41 

2.39 

a  1.10 

a  1.43 

1.29 

.96 

No.  19 

2.88 

1.60 

4.48 

.53 

.20 

.73 

6.09 

6.00 

6.82 

6.73 

No.  27 

14.24 

10.40 

24.64 

1.42 

.31 

1.73 

6.51 

4.50 

8.24 

6.23 

No.  30 

6.65 

4.82 

11.47 

1.25 

.36 

1.61 

3.11 

1.86 

4.72 

3.47 

No.  34 

3.92 

12.82 

16.74 

1.96 

1.92 

3.88 

3.74 

2.57 

7.62 

6.46 

No.  39 

13.33 

14.37 

27.70 

2.67 

2.87 

5.54 

3.41 

5.62 

8.95 

11.16 

No.  40 

6.50 

28.02 

34.52 

1.60 

.76 

2.36 

6.23 

6.70 

8.59 

9.06 

No.  45 

9.77 

8.90 

18.67 

.89 

.22 

1.11 

7.04 

6.76 

8.15 

7.86 

No.  47 

20.81 

16.92 

37.73 

2.63 

1.13 

3.76 

4.71 

3.92 

8.47 

7.6.8 

No.  49 

7.35 

26.74 

34.09 

L32 

.66 

1.98 

3.00 

1.52 

4.98 

3.50 

No.  52 

10.06 

10.06 

20.12 

1.01 

.50 

1.51 

8.44 

7.48 

9.95 

8.99 

No.  53..... 

8.53 

15.98 

24.51 

2.13 

4.00 

6.13 

2.08 

1.48 

8.21 

7.61 

No.  54.,... 

6.92 

15.97 

22.89 

.69 

1.60 

2.29 

.04 

a  1.00 

2.33 

1.29 

No.  59 

8.66 

1.62 

10.28 

.87 

.03 

.90 

8.07 

7.04 

8.97 

7.94 

No.  61 

3.71 

25.26 

28.97 

.74 

3.16 

3.90 

1.30 

.89 

5.20 

4.78 

Average 

7.59 

15.44 

23.03 

1.57 

1.29 

2.86 

4.58 

4.42 

7.44 

7.28 

•  Loss. 


While  it  is  hardly  possible  to  eliminate  these  evils  from  the  indus- 
try, some  means  snould  be  found  by  which  the  manufacturer  can 
protect  himself  to  some  extent  from  practices  that  are  each  day 
becoming  a  greater  menace. 

While  the  percentage  of  cancellations  is  over  twice  as  Inrge  as  that 
of  returns  and  allowances,  the  loss  on  returns  and  allowances  is 
greater  than  on  cancellations.  This  condition  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
a  large  percentage  of  cancellations  are  made  before  the  goods  have 
been  cut,  entaihng  a  small  loss,  while  returned  garments  thrown  on 


r 


r 


n 


^ 


SELLING   CONDITIONS. 


251 


the  hands  of  the  manufacturer  are  hard  to  dispose  of  and  are  fre- 
quently sold  at  considerable  sacrifice.  ,,      _  ^^  ij 
Establishments  Nos.  15,  18,  and  54,  which  show  final  losses,  would 
each  have  shown  a  profit  if  they  had  had  no  returns  and  allowances  nor 

^^The  c J^nsus  of  opinion  among  manuf actm-ere  is  that  before  the 
existing  evils  in  the  industry  can  be  eliminated  there  wiU  have  to  be 
closer  cooperation  between  the  manufacturers  and  retailers.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  a  joint  committee  composed  of  members  of  the 
National  Association  of  Clothiers  and  the  National  Association  of 
Retail  Clothiers  could  do  much  toward  bringing  about  such  coopera- 
tion. Disputes  of  all  kinds  between  manufacturer  and  retailers 
could  be  referred  to  this  committee  for  arbitration  and  without  doubt 
much  good  could  be  accomphshed.  An  agreement  covering  the 
followi^  headings  should  be  drawn  up  and  adhered  to  between 
manufacturers  and  retailers,  and  it  should  be  the  duty  of  the  joint 
committee  to  adjust  claims  made  under  the  agreement: 

There  should  be  no  cancellations  except  under  conditions  that  would  make  it 
*^o"calfcellatSf  revisions,  or  alterations  should  be  accepted'  after  the  goods  have 

^o^SiKls  should  be  returned  without  proper  cause,  such  as  the  merchandise  not 
cominc  up  to  specifications,  inferiority  of  workmanship,  late  deUvery,  etc 

Demands  for  allowances  should  be  granted  only  with  good  reason  and  after  thorough 

''^M^Sct'urers  should  be  required  to  deliver  goods  at  the  time  specified  in  the  order, 
otherwise  the  retailers  should  have  the  option  of  returning  the  merchandise 

Where  the  manufacturer  has  not  lived  up  to  the  order  and  has  subsUtuted  stylea 
or  materials  not  called  for,  the  retailer  should  have  redress. 

This  committee  should  also  go  into  the  matter  of  cut-price  sales, 
where  fraudulent  advertising  is  resorted  to,  misrepresenting  merchan- 

*  Cl^er  coo^ration  among  manufacturers  will  also  do  much  toward 
ehminating  trade  abuses  in  the  industry.  Recommendations  by  the 
National  Association  of  Clothiers  in  regard  to  manufacturers  keeping 
uniform  cancellation  records  and  interchanging  canceUation  and 
credit  information  are  excellent,  and,  if  adopted  throughout  the 
industry,  would  eventually  lead  to  a  great  reduction  of  losses. 


MACHINERY   AND   PROCESSES. 


253 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

MACHIVERT  AND  PBOCESSES. 
HACHINEBY  FOR  MAKING  CLOTHING.^ 

The  history  of  sewing  machines  starts  with  the  patent  granted  to 
Thomas  Saint,  in  England,  July  17,  1790,''  and  the  first  sewing 
machine  known  to  be  put  in  operation  was  one  patented  by  Bar- 
thelomy  Thimonnier  in  France  in  1830.  These  machines,  untd  their 
destruction  by  mobs,  were  successfully  used  in  making  some  of  the 
clothing  for  the  French  army.  Thimonnier  patented  his  machine 
in  the  United  States  in  1850.  Several  patents  on  sewing  machines 
were  taken  out  in  England  and  the  United  States  up  to  1846,  on 
September  10  of  which  year  Elias  Howe,  jr.^  of  Boston,  received  a 
United  States  patent  on  the  sewing  machine  as  we  know  it.  The 
stitch  employed  b^r  the  machines  prior  to  Howe's  was  either  a  chain 
stitch  or  a  back  stitch,  in  imitation  of  hand  sewing.  Before  Howe's 
machine  was  patented  Walter  Hunt  of  New  York  attempted  to  make 
a  lock  stitch,  as  the  chain-stitch  work  was  apt  to  run  or  come  out. 
He  used  a  needle  with  an  eye  near  its  point,  so  that  on  forming  a 
loop  below  the  cloth  a  little  shuttle  might  pass  on  through  the  loop, 
carrying  the  second  thread  with  it.  ifint,  however,  never  patented 
his  idea.  Howe's  machine  had  a  needle  with  an  eve  near  its  point, 
which  had  previously  been  used  for  handwork  in  France,  and  which 
with  a  shuttle  beneath  the  cloth  formed  a  lock  stitch.  An  inter- 
mittent feed  carried  the  material  forward  as  each  stitch  was  formed. 

Returning  to  the  United  States  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
introduce  his  machine  in  England,  Howe  found  I.  M.  Singer  &  Co. 
and  others  making  sewing  machines.  Howe  instituted  legal  proceed- 
ings against  these  manufacturers,  and  his  suit  was  sustained  by  the 
courts.  In  1860  Howe  got  a  7-year  extension  of  his  patent,  but  in 
1867  his  application  for  another  extension  was  denied.  Improve- 
ments in  the  machine  were  rapid  after  Howe'spatont.  Among  them 
were  inventions  by  John  Bachclder,  AUen  B.  Wilson,  Isaac  M.  Singer, 
and  others.  In  1856  the  owners  and  controllers  of  the  Bachelder, 
Wilson,  and  other  fundamental  patents,  Elias  Howe,  I.  M.  Singer  &  Co., 
the  Wheeler  &  Wilson  Manufacturing  Co.,  and  the  Grover  &  Baker 
Sewing  Machine  Co.,  pooled  their  patents. 

The  improvement  in  the  sewing  machine  has  continued  until  it 
has  been  adapted  to  almost  every  commodity  that  can  be  sewed. 
From  1842  to  September  10,  1895,  the  United  States  issued  7,439 
patents  on  sewing  machines  and  accessories.*' 

The  following  is  a  chronological  list  of  the  important  early  sewing- 
machine  patents  in  the  United  States,  compiled  from  Frederick  G. 

a  For  history  of  the  sewing  machine  see  Frederick  0.  Bourne's  American  Sewing  Machines,  in  One 
Hundred  Years  of  American  Commerce. 
b  Ibid.,  p.  525. 
•  Ibid.,  p.  533. 

252 


Bourne's  American  Sewing  Machines,  in  One  Hundred  Years  of 
American  Commerce: 


^ 


^ 


A 


rH 


Dates. 


Sept.  10,1846 


May 

Nov. 

Feb. 

Aug. 
Aug. 

Mar. 
Apr. 
Apr. 
May 


8,1S49 

12,1850 

11,1851 

12, 1851 
12, 1851 

7,1854 

4,1854 

11,1854 

31, 1854 


Nov.    7,1854 


Serial 
num- 
bers. 


4750 

6439 

7776 

7931 

8294 
8296 

10ri09 
10728 
10757 
10994 

11884 


Elias  Howe,  jr 

J.  Bachelder 

A.B.Wilson 

W.    O.    Orover    and 
W.  E.  Baker. 

I.  M.  Singer 

A.  B.  Wilson 

C.  Miller: 

W.  H.  Akins 

S.J.  Parker 

M.   W.   Stevens  and 

E.  G.  Kinsley. 
D.C.  Ambler 


Inventions. 


Eye-pointed  needle  in  combination  with  shuttle  for 
under  thread,  continuous  thread  from  spools,  lock 
stitch,  automatic  feed  the  length  of  l>aster  plate. 

Two  or  more  threads,  chain  stitch,  continuous  feeding 
device,  horizontal  table,  and  overhanging  arm. 

Lock  stitch,  vibratory  shuttle  pointed  at  both  ends, 
reciprocating  feed-bar. 

Chain  stitch,  two  or  more  threads. 

Lock  stitch,  feed  wheel,  thread  controller. 

Lock  stitch,  rotary  hook,  for  carrjing  upper  thread 

around  bobbin  containing  under  thread. 
Button  hole,  two  threads. 
Cop  for  shuttle. 

Lock  stitch,  transverse  reciprocating  shuttle. 
Lock  stitch,  reciprocating  shuttle  in  cylinder  bed,  with 

Lock  stitch,  two  needles,  over  seaming  for  felling  lap 
seams. 


The  following  statement  of  the  Singer  Manufacturing  Co.,  quoted 
from  pa^e  75  of  ''The  Clothing  Industry  in  New  York,"  by  Jesse  E. 
Pope,  will  give  some  idea  of  the  improvement  and  perfection  of  the 
sewing  macnine: 

''Stitching  macliines  were  first  operated  in  the  clothing  trade  by  foot  power  at  a 
speed  of  800  or  900  stitches  per  minute.  The  construction  was  cimmsy  and  hard  to 
operate.  Gradually  machines  were  built  with  less  motion  and  friction  in  the  parts 
and  were  able  to  attain  greater  number  of  stitches  per  minute  with  less  labor,  but 
still  operated  by  foot  power.  *  *  *  Machines  on  mechanical  power  were  able  to 
be  operated  on  a  si>eed  of  about  1,200  to  1.500  stitches  per  minute,  and  finally  to 
1,800.  Later,  machines  with  a  speed  of  2,000  stitches  per  minute  came  into  general 
use.  In  1895  a  machine  was  put  on  the  market  permitting  a  speed  of  2,800  stitcher 
per  minute,  and  finally,  in  1900,  first-class  results  were  obtained  on  a  machine  with 
a  speed  of  4,000  stitches.  During  all  these  changes  the  desire  has  been  to  get  as 
little  motion  in  the  machine  and  confine  the  mechanism  to  as  few  parts  as  possible. 

The  introduction  of  the  swinging  treadle  enabled  the  operator 
working  by  foot  to  attain  a  high  speed.  The  introduction  of  elec- 
tricity was  of  utmost  importance.  It  increased  the  production  and 
made  greater  speed  possible  with  less  strain  on  the  worker.  To-day 
all  large  shops  and  most  contractors,  even  the  small  ones,  utilize 
electric  power.  The  trade-union  has  been  chiefly  responsible  for  the 
introduction  of  electricity  in  contract  shops.  Improvement  has  taken 
place  not  only  in  increasing  the  speed  of  the  machine  but  also  in 
adapting  the  machine  to  all  ^inds  oi  operations,  by  the  aid  of  various 
attachments. 

The  first  power  cutting  machine  was  made  by  Albion  and  Warth, 
of  Staten  Island,  in  1872.  This  machine  was  operated  by  steam, 
and  consisted  of  a  reciprocating  vertical  blade.  About  1873  or  1874 
appeared  the  Fenn  cutting  machine,  also  worked  by  steam  power, 
but  consisting  of  a  circular  rotary  knife.  In  1892  Bloch,  of  Cincin- 
nati, brought  out  a  rotary  machine,  weighing  about  35  pounds,  which 
was  run  by  electricity.  In  1897  the  Eastman  Co.  introduced  the 
-first  electrically  run  vertical-blade  machine,  which  cut  a  maximum 
thickness  of  about  IJ  inches  of  cloth,  and  in  1900  they  introduced 
their  rotary  machine. 


ii 


254 


MEN  S   FACTOEY-MADE    CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


MACHINERY   AND   PROCESSES. 


255 


The  present-day  machine  does  the  same  work  as  the  Bloch  machine, 
but  is  much  simpler  in  construction  and  has  many  improvements. 
The  machine  for  ordinary  use  weighs  about  15  pounds. 

The  original  form  of  pressing  iron  was  a  large  goose,  heated  on  a 
stove  and  applied  directly  to  the  goods  without  mechanical  aid.  This 
has  been  improved  by  the  introduction  of  a  blower  iron,  using  ordi- 
nary illuminating  gas,  which  heats  each  iron  individually.  Most  off 
or  final  pressing  is  still  done  by  this  form  of  blower  iron.  For  under 
pressing,  as  this  work  requires  much  heavy  labor,  various  high-power 

Eressing  machines,  with  tne  iron  attached  to  a  crane  or  movable  arm, 
ave  been  introduced. 

Cloth-testing  machine. — The  cloth- testing  machine  is  simple  in  con- 
struction and  is  built  on  the  dead-weight  principle,  thus  d(oing  away 
with  inaccuracies  due  to  changes  in  temperature,  careless  handling, 
etc.,  which  occur  in  spring- type  machines.  The  machine  is  built  m 
both  automatic  and  hand  styles,  and  in  various  sizes.  The  automatic 
machine  makes  the  complete  test  in  less  than  one  minute.  In  the 
hand  machine  the  test  is  made  with  the  clamps  holding  a  sample 
of  the  cloth,  usually  one-half  or  1  inch  in  widtn,  the  clamps  being 
exactly  one-half  or  1  inch  apart.  The  cloth  must  be  inserted  so  that 
it  is  flat  in  the  jaws,  not  angled  or  twisted.  The  hand  wheel  is  then 
revolved,  as  steadilv  as  possible,  at  a  speed  of  about  150  revolutions 
per  minute,  until  tne  cloth  is  broken.  A  dial  indicates  the  number 
of  pounds'  puD  upon  the  cloth  at  the  breaking  point. 

Cloth-weighing  machine. — The  cloth  is  weighed  by  means  of  a  tor- 
sion balance  scale,  one  for  woolen  cloth,  which  gives  the  weight  in 
ounces  to  the  yard  of  cloth,  and  one  for  cotton  fabrics,  which  gives 
the  number  of  yards  to  the  pound. 

Automatic  cloth-laying^v  machine. — The  automatic  cloth-laying-up 
machine  is  used  principally  for  linings  and  interlinings — goods  that 
are  flat  folded.  It  will  lay  up  any  fabric  if  it  is  in  a  single  ply  and 
not  doubled  over.  It  wiD  not,  however,  lay  up  cloth  that  has  a  nap, 
as  the  machine  in  laying  up  doubles  back,  which  would  result  in  the 
nap  running  in  different  directions. 

The  machine  is  run  along  tracks  attached  to  the  cutting  table; 
these  tracks  can  be  widened.  The  table  has  a  straight  line  marked 
near  the  front  edge  and  on  the  machine,  in  the  same  line  with  this, 
are  cloth  guides  to  keep  the  goods  in  such  a  position  that  they  will 
be  laid  up  with  an  even  edge  in  front.  What  variations  there  are  in 
the  width  of  the  cloth  come  in  the  back.  The  machine  stretches  the 
goods  at  the  proper  tension. 

The  machine  is  pushed  along  until  one  thickness  of  cloth  has  been 
laid;  the  cloth  is  then  automatically  and  instantaneously  folded  and 
the  machine  is  pushed  back,  laying  up  another  thickness.  No  cutting 
of  the  goods  at  the  end  of  the  lay  is  necessary,  as  in  laying  up  by 
hand.  A  register  automatically  counts  the  ply  as  they  are  laid  down. 
The  machine  has  two  leader  blades,  which  lead  the  cloth  onto  the  pile; 
they  automatically  rise  as  the  pile  thickens.  The  manufacturer  of 
this  machine  estimates  that  one  boy  working  this  machine  will  lay 
up  twice  as  much  cloth  as  two  boys  by  hand. 

Cloth  clamp. — For  those  who  do  not  use  a  lajnng-up  machine,  there 
is  a  simple  cSoth  clamp,  which  holds  the  ends  of  the  cloth  securely 
and  uniiomily  while  it  is  being  laid  up.  It  does  away  with  the  need 
of  weights.    The  manufacturer  of  this  clamp  states  that  its  use  saves 


^ 


r 


15  per  cent  of  the  laying-up  time,  adds  5  to  10  inches  to  the  length  of 
the  lay  on  account  of  the  extra  tension,  makes  cutting  easier  and 
more  accurate,  and  lessens  the  strain  on  the  cutting  macnine. 

Cutting  machines. — Cutting  machines  rest  on  a  flat  bedplate,  which 
is  adapted  to  glide  easily  under  the  cloth.  They  are  comparatively 
light,  and  are  made  with  two  styles  of  blades,  the  rotary,  or  circular, 
and  the  straight  knife,  or  reciprocating,  blade.  Both  types  are  run 
at  great  speed,  on  either  a  direct  or  an  alternating  current,  and  are 
built  to  operate  on  110  or  220  volts.  The  power  is  easily  transmitted 
from  the  motor  to  the  knife,  and  both  types  have  detachable  lamps. 
The  current  is  switched  on  or  off  by  a  simple  thumb  operation  that 
does  not  necessitate  removing  the  hand  from  the  handle  of  the  ma- 
v_  chine.  The  machine  also  has  a  sharpening  device  that  sharpens  both 
f^^  sides  of  the  cutting  surface,  thereby  preventing  a  wire  eoge.  The 
machine  is  equipped  with  a  guard  and  guide,  one  piece  of  meta\ 
which  not  only  Keeps  the  goods  from  becoming  disarranged  in  cut- 
ting, especially  in  the  case  of  the  straight  knife  which  goes  up  and 
down,  but  also  protects  the  haiids  of  the  cutter.  The  rotary-blade 
machine  is  usually  made  with  4  and  5J  inch  diameter  blades.  The 
4-inch  blade  will  efficiently  cut  a  maximum  of  cloth  2  inches  high, 
and  the  5i-inch  blade  machine,  a  maximum  of  3  inches.  The  straight- 
knife  machine  is  made  with  all  size  blades,  from  2^  to  8  inches,  and 
L  will  cut  goods  the  height  of  the  blade.     (Fig.  1.) 

J|]^^  The  straight-knife  machine  is  better  than  the  rotary  for  cutting 

•^^"  corners  and  curves  because  it  cuts  up  and  down.  With  the  rotary 
machine  the  blade  cuts  the  upper  before  the  bottom  layers  of  cloth. 
The  rotary  is,  however,  the  faster  machine,  and  is  easier  to  handle 
and  more  easily  sharpened.     (Fig.  2.) 

The  representative  of  the  manufacturer  of  these  machines  claims 
that,  exclusive  of  laying-up  time,  the  straight-knife  machine  will  do 
about  three  times  as  much  work  as  the  long  knife  worked  by  hand. 

Lininq-maTcing  and  seam-closing  machine. — The  machine  for  seam- 
ing the  linings  of  coats  and  putting  on  the  facings  has  a  single  needle, 
a  long  arm,  drop  feed,  and  rotating  hook  driven  by  a  flat  belt.    The 
machine  makes  the  lock  stitch  and  can  be  operated  safely  and  with- 
y^     out  vibration  at  a  speed  of  3,000  stitches  per  minute.     It  is  most 

{profitable  for  handling  fight  work,  and  is  generally  used  for  closing 
inings,  facings,  pocket  making,  seam  closing,  welt  seaming,  and 
general  work  on  all  kinds  of  clothing.     (Fig.  3.) 

Seam-closing  machine. — For  the  seaming  on  cloth  where  the  occa- 
sional use  of  a  trimmer  is  desired,  a  high-speed,  long-arm  machine 
making  a  lock  stitch  is  used.  It  is  equipped  with  an  adjustable 
trimmer,  to  trim  from  one-sixteenth  to  one-fourth  of  an  inch  from 
the  seam  on  either  light  or  heavy  fabrics.  This  trimmer  can  be 
thrown  into  or  out  of  action  at  the  will  of  the  operator,  so  as  not  to 
impair  the  value  of  the  machine  for  plain  stitching.  A  cavity  in  the 
thniat-plate  at  the  right  of  the  trimmer  knife  is  provided  as  a  clear- 
ance for  the  knife  and  to  prevent  fint  from  dropping  upon  the  shut- 
tle. The  machine  can  be  driven  up  to  1,800  stitches  per  minute. 
(Figs.  4  and  5.) 

Serging  machine. — The  machine  designed  for  serging  pants  and  cut 
edges  of  cloth  makes  the  double- thread  chain-stitch,  and  is  capable 
of  being  operated  at  a  speed  of  3,300  stitches  per  minute.  Its  pro- 
duction is  limited  only  by  the  skill  of  the  operator.  It  has  an  adjusta- 
ble guide  for  various  weights  of  cloth,  is  substantial  in  construction, 


11! 


256 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


MACHINERY   AND    PROCESSES. 


257 


and  does  not  get  out  of  repair  easily.  The  expense  for  its  mainte- 
nance is  extremely  low.     (Fig.  6.) 

For  serging,  or  overcasting  the  raw  edges  of  materials  before  seam- 
ing, several  machines  are  in  general  use.  One  is  a  zigzag,  lock-stitch 
machine  that  is  used  wherever  this  style  of  work  is  required.  The 
needle- throw  from  side  to  side  is  adjustable  up  to  seven  thirty- 
seconds  of  an  inch.  The  lock,  or  intersection  of  the  upper  and  under 
threads,  is  formed  at  the  edge  of  the  goods,  the  needle  naving  a  move- 
ment from  side  to  side  as  the  material  moves  forward.  The  machine 
can  be  run  up  to  2,500  stitches  per  minute.     (Figs.  7  and  8.) 

Canvas  front-making  machine. — The  canvas  front-making  machine 
is  a  one-needle  zigzag,  lock-stitch  machine,  and  is  designed  for  sew- 
ing or  making  coat  pads  and  canvas  fronts,  with  wide  bight  and  zig- 
zag lock  stitch.  The  bight  is  adjustable  up  to  five-sixteenths  of  an 
inch  in  width,  and  straight  seaming  can  be  done  if  desired.  The 
stitch  is  elastic,  allowing  for  the  forming  or  shaping  of  the  coat  fronts 
in  accordance  with  the  pattern  and  materials.  The  machine  is  capa- 
ble of  a  speed  of  2,000  stitches  per  minute.     (Figs.  9  and  10.) 

Blind-stitch  machine. — Felling,  or  blind  stitching,  is  a  dehcate  oper- 
ation requiring  a  steady  hand  and  excellent  sight.  There  is  a  machine 
on  the  market  that  does  away  with  hand  feUing,  by  mc^ans  of  a  device 
permitting  an  operator  to  make  the  needle  dig  into  a  piece  of  cloth 
no  matter  how  slight,  to  any  depth  desired,  and  almost  instantly  to 
adjust  it  for  felhng.  The  machine  eUminates  slow  and  costly  hand 
felling  and  gives  a  good  finish.  The  manufacturers  of  this  machine 
claim  that  it  will  produce  neater  and  more  evenly  finished  work  than 
is  possible  by  hand.  Machines  are  especially  built  for  felling  coat 
bottoms,  sleeve  linings  at  the  coat  cuffs,  pants  bottoms,  and  numer- 
ous other  operations.  The  cjlinder  lock-stitch  type  is  recommended 
by  the  manufacturer  for  use  m  the  various  felling  operations  on  coats, 
pants,  and  overcoats;  the  flat  bed  lock-stitch  typo  for  padding  collars 
and  lapels,  and  feUing  bottoms  and  facings  of  coats.  A  single-thread 
blind-stitch  machine  is  also  made  to  pad  collars  and  lapels  and  finish 
pants  bottoms.  Just  half  the  cloth  or  thread  is  caught  by  the  needle 
and  not  a  single  stitch  shows  through.  The  work  will  not  unravel. 
The  manufacturer  of  these  machines  claims  that  through  their  intro- 
duction the  cost  of  feUing  operations  has  greatly  decreased.  The  fol- 
lowing comparative  production  is  stated  in  their  advertisement: 
Padding  collars — by  hand  50  per  day,  by  machine  400  per  day; 
padding  lapels — by  hand  40  coats  per  day,  by  machine  250  coats; 
felling  pants  bottoms — by  hand  100  pairs  per  day,  by  machine  600 
pairs  per  day. 

Shoulder-pad  machine. — ^While  it  is  customary  for  many  manufac- 
turers and  contractors  to  buy  their  shoulder  pads,  it  is  possible  to 
make  them  very  economically.  The  shoulder-pad  machine  makes  a 
basting  or  tacking  stitch.  The  material  is  moved  by  the  operator 
back  and  forth  under  the  needle  for  a  long  or  a  short  stitch,  as  may  be 
required.  The  machine  has  a  hollow  needle  bar,  a  needle  stripper  in 
place  of  a  presser  foot,  and  a  high  hft.  It  is  equipped  with  a  stop 
motion  and  can  be  set  for  the  required  number  of  stitches.  The  ma- 
chine wiD  stop  with  the  needle  raised  to  the  highest  point,  ready  for 
the  next  pad.  The  average  production  of  one  of  these  machines  is 
approximately  1,800  pads  per  day  varying  with  the  size  of  the  pads. 


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Two-row  stitching  machine. — The  two-row  stitching  macliine  has 
two  needles  and  makes  the  lock  stitch.  It  is  made  in  gauges,  or 
widths  between  needles,  of  one-eighth  of  an  inch  to  1  inch.  The 
machine  makes  two  rows  of  lock  stitching  and<;an  be  run  up  to  1,700 
stitches  per  minute.     (P'igs.  11  and  12.) 

Gathering  machine. — ^The  machine  for  gathering  the  sleeve  makes  the 
single-thread  chain  stitch,  and  has  an  adjustable  gathering  feed  that 
can  be  put  into  or  out  of  action  by  the  hand  lever  while  the  machine 
is  in  operation,  and  that  makes  it  possible  to  take  in  the  fullness  of  a 
sleeve  whenever  desired.  It  is  equipped  with  a  guide  to  carry  tape 
wherever  this  additional  reinforcement  is  required. 

Sleeve-inserting  machine. — The  sleeve-inserting  machine  has  a 
cyhnder  bed.  Where  a  machine  of  this  type  is  used  it  is  customary 
to  omit  the  gathering  of  the  sleeve  before  inserting,  as  the  alternating 
presvsers  with  which  this  machine  is  equipped  make  it  possible  for 
the  operator  so  to  manipulate  the  garment  as  to  bring  it  out  without 
fullness  or  puckering  under  the  arm.  The  machine  can  be  driven 
up  to  a  speed  of  1,800  stitches  per  minute.     (Figs.  13  and  14.) 

Buttonhole  mxichine. — The  machine  for  making  buttonholes  in  coats, 
vests,  etc.,  makes  eyelet-end  buttonholes  from  one-half  of  an  inch  to 
li  inches  long  without  changing  any  of  its  parts.  The  buttonhole 
has  a  fine,  raised  purl  at  its  edges,  and  a  reinforcing  cord  or  gimp  is 
laid  under  the  stitches  as  is  done  in  handwork,  which  the  finished 
buttonhole  closely  resembles.  The  cutting  of  the  hole  is  done  by 
the  hand-cutting  lever  attached  to  the  machine,  either  before  or  after 
stitching.  The  machine  can  be  driven  up  to  a  speed  of  1,000  stitches 
per  minute.     (Figs.  15  and  16.) 

There  is  another  buttonhole  machine  on  the  market,  the  manufac- 
turer of  which  claims  that  it  makes  a  buttonhole  as  perfect  as  one 
made  by  hand,  and  that  the  buttonholes  made  on  this  machine  are 
stronger,  will  wear  better,  and  look  better  than  the  handmade  button- 
hole. The  machine  runs  equally  well  with  any  kind  of  material, 
from  the  thinnest  mohair  to  the  heaviest  woolen.  The  machine  is 
entirely  automatic,  the  material  always  held  stationary,  and  the 
stitching  mechanism  travels  around  the  buttonhole.  The  machine 
can  be  easily  adjusted  to  any  width,  bight,  or  gauge,  and  the  needle  is 
self-setting.  The  buttonhole  is  not  cut  until  after  it  has  been  worked 
in  the  goods.  The  machine  makes  a  high  purl  and  can  be  run  with 
any  grade  of  silk  or  good  cotton.  The  machine  is  speedy,  simple  in 
all  its  movements,  is  easily  operated,  and  does  not  easily  get  out  of 
order.  The  machine  is  made  in  various  types  and  for  buttonholes  of 
various  lengths  up  to  IJ  inches. 

Blind  buttonhole  machine. — ^There  arc  a  number  of  methods  for 
making  bhnd  or  imitation  buttonholes  on  the  cuffs  of  sleeves.  One 
of  the  machines  for  this  purpose  makes  a  purl  stitch  without  bars. 
The  inside  measurement  of  the  buttonhole  can  be  adjusted  from 
three-eighths  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch.  There  are  a  number  of 
other  machines  making  barred  or  whip-stitch  buttonholes  without 
eyelets.  The  machines  are  simple  and  effective,  not  hable  to  get 
out  of  order,  and  being  automatic,  are  easily  handled  by  all  oper- 
ators. The  knives  furnished  with  the  machine  are  easily  removed, 
and  when  it  is  desired  to  make  real  buttonholes  (in  trouser  flies,  coat 
11914*»— 16 17 


M    I 


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258 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


lapels,  etc.)  are  easily  replaced.    The  machine  is  capable  of  a  speed 
of  1,600  stitches  per  minute. 

Tacking  and  barring  machine. — Tacking  and  barring  in  their  various 
forms  cover  so  wide  a  range  that  it  would  necessitate  several  pages 
to  illustrate  the  different  machines  and  their  various  kinds  of  work. 
Generally  speaking,  this  work  can  be  divided  into  buttonhole,  fly  lap, 
hanger  and  placket  tacking,  pocket  barring,  and  the  making  of 
imitation  buttonholes,  tagging,  and  labehng. 

The  machine  in  general  use  for  buttonhole  barring  makes  a  bar 
from  one-eighth  to  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long,  composed  of  7 
staying,  1 1  covering,  and  3  tying  stitches  that  hold  the  ends  of  the 
buttonhole  firmly  together,  giving  the  finished  bar  the  apnearanco 
of  being  an  integral  part  of  tne  buttonhole  itself.  The  macnine  ties 
a  knot  on  the  underside  of  the  garment  and  cuts  the  threads,  ehmi- 
nating  all  danger  of  unraveUng.  The  saving  in  silk  effected  by  the 
machine  is  very  large,  as  the  trimming  of  the  threads  close  to  the 
under  side  of  the  knot  entirely  disposes  of  the  long  loops  of  waste 
threads  between  buttonholes.  The  machine  js  capable  of  a  speed  of 
1,000  stitches  per  minute. 

Tichet-sewing  machine. — The  ticket-sewing  machine  sews  a  single 
continuous  chain  stitch,  which  pulls  out  instantly  and  entirely  when 
the  ticket  is  removed.  It  automatically  forms  a  triangular  stitch 
in  one  operation,  the  needle  puncturing  each  hole  only  once.  This 
operation  prevents  each  needle  puncture  from  containing  too  much 
thread,  which  often  causes  bad  holes.  The  ticket  will  stand  hard 
wear,  and  will  not  come  off  even  if  run  against  a  pressing  iron.  By 
inserting  a  needle  or  pin  under  the  finishing  stitch,  the  ticket  can  be 
removed  instantly,  leaving  no  loose  threads  which  when  pressed 
into  the  garment  would  cause  unsightly  lumps. 

Coat-hanger  tacHng  machine. — ^The  tubing  to  be  used  for  the  hanger 
can  be  cut  to  length  and  by  this  method  an  operator  can  sew  3,000  to 
4,000  hangers  dafly.  This  machine  makes  a  very  firm,  strong  fasten- 
ing, using  42  stitches,  of  which  12  are  staying,  27  covering,  and  3 
tymg.  It  draws  the  top  thread  below,  fastening  and  automatically 
trimming  both  threads  at  the  completion  of  each  bar  and  leaving  no 
short  ends  on  the  right  side  of  the  goods.  As  the  work  leaves  the 
machine  it  is  finished  without  waste  of  thread. 

Tacking  irouser  loops  machine. — The  machine  for  tacking  belt  loops 
to  trousers  fastens  them  firmly  by  tacks,  wliich  may  be  three-eighths 
to  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  long,  and  the  width  of  bight  lengthwise 
of  the  loop  one-sixteenth  to  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch.  The  number 
of  stitches  can  be  varied  at  will.  The  threads  are  cut  off  automatically, 
and  the  complete  operation  is  performed  so  quickly  that  the  resulting 
rage  output  for  a  proficient  operator  is  40  or  50  dozen  pairs  ol 


averi 


trousers,  eacii  having  five  or  six  loops.     (Figs.  17  and  18.) 

Label-sewing  machine. — The  machme  for  sewing  woven  labeb  at  the 
top  of  inside  breast  pockets  on  men's  coats  is  a  post  machine  having 
a  high  arm  and  single  needle ;  there  is  ample  room  to  turn  the  garment, 
in  order  to  stitch  the  four  sides  of  the  label.  The  post  of  the  machine 
being  small,  it  is  easy  to  shde  the  pocket  over  it.  This  machine  can 
stitch  300  to  400  labels  per  day.     (Fig.  19.) 

Button-sewing  machine. — The  machine  for  sewing  on  flat  buttons 
makes  a  specified  number  of  stitches,  always  including  3  tying  stitches. 
It  stops  automatically  when  the  needle  is  at  its  highest  point,  and 


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MACHINERY   AND   PROCESSES. 


259 


cuts  the  tlu*eads  on  the  underside  of  the  fabric.  The  machine  also  has 
a  reliable  automatic  thread- trimming  device.  This  machine  makes  18 
cross  and  3  tying  stitches,  makes  cross  stitches  in  four  buttonholes, 
and  can  be  adjusted  for  two-hole  and  bar  buttons.  The  needle  throw 
is  from  five  thirty-seconds  to  five-sijcteenths  of  an  inch.  This  machine 
will  take  buttons  from  15  to  48  lignes  in  diameter.  As  the  work  leaves 
the  machine  it  is  finished,  with  no  waste  of  thread  nor  short  ends  on 
the  right  side,  the  threads  being  drawn  through,  tied,  and  automati- 
cally cut  off  on  the  underside  of  the  garment.  A  good  operator,  under 
normal  conditions,  can  sew  5,000  or  6,000  buttons  daily.  (Figs.  20 
and  21.) 

Another  button-sewing  machine  is  simple  in  construction  and  oper- 
ates without  knives  or  bobbins.  It  is  a  single-thread  macliine,  on 
which  the  finest  thread  may  be  used.  It  sews  all  sizes  and  styles  of 
two  and  four  hole  buttons  and  on  all  fabrics,  light,  heavy,  or  medium. 
The  stitches  on  the  fabric  are  spread  over  a  large  surface  to  prevent 
the  thread  that  holds  the  button  from  pulling  through  the  cloth. 
The  machine  automatically  forms  a  given  number  of  stitches.  After 
the  button  is  sewed  the  machine  cuts  the  thread  without  the  use  of 
knives  but  by  a  stationary  mechanical  device. 

PocJcet-making  machines. — ^The  machine  for  making  pockets  on 
coats  and  trousers  where  an  overcast  seam  is  desired  is  a  three-thread 
chain-stitch  machine  that  trims  and  overedges  at  the  same  time. 
It  wiU  handle  fabrics  up  to  five-sixteenths  oi  an  inch  in  thickness. 
The  macliine  can  be  operated  at  a  speed  of  3,000  stitches  per  minute, 
and  the  seam  produced  is  superior  to  lock-stitch  work  for  this  opera- 
tion, as  it  will  give  with  the  stretching  of  the  pocket,  and  it  has  a  more 
finished  appearance  than  a  single  lock-stitch  seam.  (Figs.  22,  23, 
and  24.) 

Back-poclcet  machine. — ^The  back-pocket  machine  is  a  two-needle 
machine  with  a  one-fourth-inch  gauge.  A  knife  is  set  midway 
between  the  needles,  so  that  the  pocket  hole  is  cut  and  the  two  lines 
of  stitching  are  made  at  the  same  time.  If  the  pocket  holes  are  cut 
wliile  the  fining  and  reinforeing  welts  are  being  stitched  in  position, 
the  pockets  are  stronger  and  more  durable  than  those  made  in  the 
ordinary  way,  and  the  production  is  greatly  increased.     (Fig.  25.) 

Seamin^-trousers  machine  (outside  seam). — ^This  machine  has  a 
combination  needle  and  drop  feed  with  needle  hole  in  the  feed  dog. 
It  stitches  straight  and  bias  pieces  together  and  brings  them  out  even 
at  the  end.  Not  only  is  it  unnecessary  for  the  cutter  to  allow  an 
extra  length  in  one  of  the  two  pieces  to  compensate  for  the  gathering 
action  of  the  feed,  but  the  usually  troublesome  fuUing  along  the  length 
of  the  seam  is  entirely  obviated.  The  machine  is  capable  of  2,800 
stitches  per  minute.     (Figs.  2G  and  27.) 

Lap-seam  felling  machine. — Where,  in  the  cheaper  grades  of  trousers, 
it  is  aesired  to  make  a  lap  seam  fell  on  the  outside  seam,  the  felling 
machine  has  a  cylinder  bed,  feeds  up  the  arm,  has  two  needles,  and 
makes  the  two-tnread  chain  stitch.  It  is  capable  of  being  run  up  to 
3,400  stitches  per  minute.  The  machine  makes  a  perfect  fell  on  the 
heaviest  work  without  pulling  in  the  feller,  and  produces  a  seam  that 
will  not  wrinkle  or  pucker  at  the  knee.  The  machine  is  made  in 
gauges,  or  distance  between  needles,  of  one-fourth,  nine  thirty-seconds, 
or  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch.     (Fig.  28.) 

Pants-Hies  machine. — The  pants-flies  machine  binds  and  trims  the 
edge  of  the  fly,  making  a  tight  and  perfectly  flat  seam,  and  at  the 


il 


260 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


same  time  remov'mg  all  surplus  material;  it  is  adjustable  in  width 
of  bight  from  one-sixteenth  to  one-fourth  of  an  inch.  The  machine 
can  be  driven  up  to  3,800  stitches  per  minute.     (Figs.  29  and  30.) 

Binding  machine. — The  growing  fashion  of  binding  the  tops  of  high- 
grade  trousers  has  led  to  the  development  of  a  number  of  new  machines 
especiaDy  designed  for  this  work.  One  of  these  is  a  vertical  trimming 
and  binding  machine,  which  can  be  fitted  to  trim  from  one-eighth  to 
one-half  of  an  inch  from  the  needle,  using  any  size  binder  required. 
It  has  a  hole  in  the  bedplate  to  allow  trimmings  to  pass  through. 
The  knife  can  be  thrown  into  and  out  of  action  at  will.  The  machine 
is  capable  of  a  speed  of  3,000  stitches  per  minute.  The  curtains  and 
canvas  can  be  put  in  with  a  single  line  of  stitching  about  1  \  inches 
from  the  top  oi  the  trousers;  the  machine  will  then  put  the  binding 
on  and  trim  the  raw  edges  of  the  curtain  material  and  canvas  at  the 
same  time.     (Fig.  31.) 

Safety  devices. — One  large  machine  company  is  experimenting  with 
a  sewing-machine  table  that  will  do  away  with  tne  danger  to  the 
operator  from  the  shafting  and  belting  underneath  the  machine. 
Tlie  table  consists  of  two  shafts,  which  are  covered  by  a  steel  tub- 
ing, running  on  each  side  of  the  table  through  the  transmission. 
The  transmission  is  completely  covered.  The  belting  runs  from  the 
machine  to  the  transmission  directly  beneath  the  table  und  is  exposed 
only  above  the  table,  whereas  in  other  types,  the  belting  runs  from  tha 
machine  to  the  floor.  This  table  has  not  proved  completely  satisfac- 
tory in  actual  use,  but  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  when  it  will  be 
perfected  so  that  its  general  use  will  be  possible. 

Another  device  to  insure  safety  to  the  operator  consists  of  a  box 
that  covers  the  transmitter.  It  operates  on  hinges  on  the  bottom  of 
the  footboard,  and  is  fastened  with  a  hook  to  the  top  of  the  machine. 
There  is  also  a  cover  for  the  shafting  and  strap  wheel,  fastened  to  the 
gutter  of  the  table,  with  the  bottom  resting  on  the  footboard.  This 
arrangement  makes  the  guard  easy  to  open  for  cleaning  or  sweeping 
under  the  machine.  The  coverings  are  made  of  sheet  metal  ancl  are 
easily  attached  or  detached.  Whde  this  guard  completely  covers  the 
shafting  and  belting,  it  does  not  permit  the  air  to  circulate  under  the 
table  and  causes  the  machine,  especially  in  summer,  to  become  very 
hot. 

Pressing  irons. — ^Up  to  about  1903  the  irons  used  in  the  trade  were 
the  ordinary  irons  heated  on  a  stove.  About  that  time  the  gas  iron 
was  introduced,  which  was  objectionable  because  it  emitted  a  gas  odor. 
This  objection,  however,  was  shortly  afterwards  removed  through  the 
introduction  of  the  blower  or  air  pump.  Most  of  the  irons  used  in  the 
trade  are  heated  by  gas,  as  electncty,  which  is  cleaner  and  more  sani- 
tan^,  is  usuaUy  not  as  economical. 

One  type  of  blower  iron  in  use  is  heated  on  the  inside  by  compressed 
air  and  gas.  The  blower  is  run  bv  a  motor.  The  iron  is  macie  in  all 
weights  from  12  to  20  pounds,  in  length,  from  TJ  to  8 J  inches,  and  in 
width,  from  4}  to  5 J  inches,  depending  upon  the  weight  of  the  iron. 

Another  type  of  iron  recently  put  on  the  market  dispenses  with  the 
blower.  It  is  a  gas  and  air  heated  iron,  requiring  no  motor,  which  can 
be  attached  to  any  gas  fixture.  It  is  heated  intemaUy  by  an  intense, 
blue,  odorless,  noisdess  gas  and  air  flame,  which  can  be  regulated  to 
any  heat  desired.  The  iron  is  equipped  with  a  removable  copper 
bottom,  which  better  holds  the  heat,  and  it  is  claimed  that  no  flame 


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MACHINERY   AND   PROCESSES. 


261 


comes  out  of  the  sides.  The  iron  is  made  in  all  weights  from  12  to 
22  pounds,  in  shapes  broad  and  short  or  long  and  narrow,  in  lengths 
from  8  to  lOi  inches  and  in  width  from  Z\  to  6  inches. 

Pressing  nmchine. — There  are  many  types  of  pressing  machines 
on  the  market.  One  machine  is  very  simple  in  construction  and 
extremely  strong,  and  requires  very  httle  floor  space.  No  jumping  is 
necessary.  A  short,  quick,  foot-pedal  movement  by  the  presser  and 
his  weight  give  more  than  enougn  pressure  for  the  heaviest  garment. 
This  great  pressure  is  secured  from  an  automatic  power  compounder 
that  can  be  adjusted  as  desired.  The  machine  oils  itself  automati- 
cally. The  iron  on  this  machine  is  heated  by  a  compound  of  air  and 
gas.  It  moves  straight  up  and  down,  without  any  sidewise  motion, 
which,  it  is  claimed,  reduces  gloss  and  prevents  the  cloth  from  stretch- 
ing or  curling.  The  buck  is  heated  by  gas  only.  The  machine  is 
especially  well  adapted,  it  is  claimed,  for  getting  a  thin  edge  on  over- 
coats. 

Steam  pressing  machine. — Another  type  of  pressing  machine 
employs  steam.  Steam  pressing  machines  are  made  in  various 
shaped  bucks  for  different  garments,  coats,  pants,  and  vests.  The 
machine  can  be  directly  connected  with  a  steam  plant,  or  is  equipped 
with  a  boiler,  so  that  it  is  independent.  The  boiler  generates  50  to 
65  pounds  of  steam,  and  is  adapted  for  a  natural  or  artificial  gas  or 
gasoline  generating  system.  In  some  machines  the  heads  and  bucks 
are  steam  heated;  in  others  only  the  head  is  heated.  The  head  of 
the  press  is  constructed  so  that  the  steam  is  diffused  uniformly  to  all 
parte.  The  inside  of  the  head  is  covered  with  asbestos  noncorrosive 
filler,  which  prevents  the  goods  from  showing  marks  and  the  buttons 
from  breaking.  The  foot  lever  is  low,  easily  reached,  and  not  in  the 
presser's  way.  Steam  is  applied  to  the  garment  from  the  head,  while 
usually  the  buck  is  continually  steam  heated  and  dry  during  the 
entire  pressing  operation.  The  steam  pressing  machine  is  a  great 
producer.  There  is  no  question  that  pressing  machines  do  more 
work  than  is  possible  by  hand.  It  is  estimated  that  the  steam  press- 
ing machine  will  do  the  work  of  three  men  with  hand  irons.  Con- 
tinued steam  pressing,  however,  is  injurious  to  the  garment,  unless 
the  fabric,  hnings,  interhnings,  and  tapes  have  aJl  been  London 
shrunk;  the  steam  will  shrink  any  portion  of  the  garment  that  has 
not  previously  received  the  maximum  shrinkage. 

TREATMENT  AND  PBEPASATION  OF  CLOTH. 

Every  efficient  clothing  manufacturer  tests  his  cloth  for  both 
strength  and  composition  before  such  cloth  is  cut  up.  To  test  the 
cloth  for  strength,  a  small  cut  is  firmly  inserted  into  the  jaws  of  the 
testing  machine,  and  the  jaws  are  then  separated  until  the  cloth 
breaks,  a  dial  indicating  the  breaking  strain.  The  weight  and 
quality  of  the  cloth  will  affect  the  breaking  strain,  and  the  cloth  must 
be  able  to  withstand  a  tensile  strength  test  of  at  least  30  pounds  to 
the  square  inch  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  clothing.  If  the 
cloth  IS  bought  as  all  wool,  it  is  next  put  through  a  wool  test,  the 
cloth  being  usually  boiled  in  a  solution  of  potash,  in  which  the  wool 
or  silk  is  consumed,  leaving  as  a  residue  the  filament  of  any  cotton 
that  the  cloth  may  contain.    Tests  are  also  made  to  determine  thb 


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MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


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MACHINERY   AND   PROCESSES. 


263 


quality  and  fastness  of  the  colors,  the  cloth  being  treated  with  sul- 
phuric or  other  acids  or  exposed  to  the  weather  for  a  week  or  more. 

The  bolt  of  cloth  is  next  examined  for  defects,  as  cloth  seldom 
comes  from  the  mill  without  some  imperfections.  All  goods  should 
be  examined  before  and  after  shrinking,  though  examination  only 
before  shrinking  is  usual.  A  bolt  of  goods  is  placed  in  an  upright 
position  on  a  revolving  stand,  and  the  cloth  is  unrolled  and  sjiread 
over  a  roller,  back  of  which  projects  a  triangular  bar  arrangement 
called  spreaders,  which  stretches  out  the  goods  to  the  full  width.  The 
rollers  are  geared  to  a  dial,  which  measures  the  cloth  as  the  examiner 
pulls  it  down  over  the  rollers. 

The  roller  or  drum  is  1  yard  in  circumference,  and  every  revolu- 
tion of  the  roller  registers  1  yard  on  the  dial,  wliich  is  marked  to 
measure  up  to  100  yards  of  cloth.  A  yardstick  is  employed  to  ascer- 
tain whether  the  width  is  the  same  as  was  specified  when  the  cloth 
was  purchased. 

The  examiner  pulls  the  cloth  gently  over  the  roUers  and,  while  the 
machine  registers  the  yardage,  exammes  the  cloth  for  defects.  The 
examination  is  made  in  a  north  light,  as  that  light  is  not  affected  by 
the  sun.  The  examiner  uses  the  naked  eye  onW.  The  following  are 
some  of  the  defects  found  in  an  examination  of  the  cloth : 

Unovon  shades,  due  to  poor  handling, 
which  causes  the  dye  to  take  unevenly. 

Streaks,  a  defect  in  the  length  of  the 
goods  caused  by  poor  scouring,  wash- 
ing of  the  goods,  or  dyeing. 

Runners,  a  foreign  thread  running  along 
the  piece  of  the  goods. 

The  examiner  noting  a  defect  ties  a  piece  of  narrow  tape  in  the 
selvage,  and  frequentl}^  marks  the  imperfection  with  tailor's  chalk. 
These  marks  are  to  notify  the  cutter  ol  the  existence  of  defects  when 
he  makes  his  lay. 

If  the  defects  in  the  cloth  are  serious,  the  cloth  is  returned  to  the 
mill.  If  not  serious,  it  is  used,  the  cutter  laying  out  his  patterns  so 
that  the  damages  will  not  affect  the  salability  of  the  finished  garment. 
A  claim  for  an  allowance,  however,  is  made  to  the  miU,  which  is 
usually  one-eighth  of  a  yard  for  every  defect.  Some  allowances  are 
settled  on  a  percentage  basis,  ranging  from  5  to  20  per  cent.  Some 
mills  examine  their  goods  before  sending  them  out,  and  in  this  case 
also,  one-eighth  of  a  yard  is  usually  allowed  for  each  defect. 

After  the  examination  the  goods  are  shrunk  or  sponged.  The 
term  sponging,  though  generally  used  in  the  trade,  is  a  misnomer. 
Goods  may  be  either  steam  or  London  shrunk.  Goods  are  shrunk 
before  being  made  up  into  a  garment  because  the  finished  garment 
shrinks  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  moisture  hi  the  air  or  rain; 
it  will  not  hold  its  original  size  and  will  water  spot  if  the  cloth  has 
not  previously  been  shrunk.  The  cloth  slirinks  because  when  it  is 
being  finished  hi  the  mill  it  goes  through  a  process  called  tentering  in 
which  it  is  stretched.  The  tension  of  the  machinery  also  stretches 
the  goods.  The  use  of  live  steam  does  not  shrink  the  goods  fully 
but  only  to  a  limited  extent.  In  the  center  of  the  perforated  cylinder 
over  which  the  cloth  is  wound  is  a  reheating  coil,  inside  of  which  live 
steam  is  passed.    The  coil  keeps  the  steam  in  a  dry  state.     Should 


Tender  in  warp  or  filling. 

Holes. 

Changes  in  filling. 

Coarse  fillings. 

Uneven  fillings. 

Broken  threads. 

Missed  picks. 


^ 


^-\ 


the  steam  condense  into  water,  and  the  water,  instead  of  steam,  pass 
through  the  cylinder  perforations,  the  goods  when  made  up  and 
pressed  would  show  water  spots.  The  reheating  coil  in  this  machine 
insures  live  steam.  In  anotner  machine  the  penorations  are  fortified 
on  the  inside  with  little  tubes,  which  are  kept  constantly  hot  by  the 
continuous  passing  of  the  live  steam.  These  hot  tubes  prevent  the 
steam  that  is  to  pass  through  the  perforations  from  condensing  into 
water. 

The  live  steam  permeates  the  cloth  as  it  is  wound  around  the  cylin- 
der. When  the  goods  are  entirely  wound,  a  piece  of  heavy  burlap  is 
rolled  around  the  goods  and  the  cylinder  is  revolved  with  the  steam 
passing  through.  The  burlap  serves  to  keep  the  moisture  and 
dampness  off  the  cloth. 

London-shrinking  is  an  Enghsh  cold-water  process.  Woolen 
blankets  are  soaked  in  cold  water,  and  the  cloth  is  folded  between  the 
damp  blankets.  A  weight  of  about  200  pounds  is  placed  on  top  and 
the  blanketed  goods  allowed  to  remain  for  about  12  hours.  Tnis  Is 
called  putting  in  damp.  The  cloth  is  not  permitted  to  come  into 
direct  contact  with  water,  because  a  discolored  cloth  often  results 
and  because  such  a  method  would  greatly  increase  the  labor  of  the 
process.  After  dampening,  the  cloth  is  hung  up  on  overhead  bars, 
in  accordion  fashion,  and  permitted  to  dry.  Natural  air-drying  is 
preferred,  but  when  the  cloth  is  required  for  immediate  use,  steam 
pipes  or  drying  machines  are  employed.  If  the  cloth  is  permitted  to 
dry  by  natural  air,  it  takes  about  36  hours  when  the  weather  is  damp 
and  cold  and  about  24  hours  when  it  is  dry.  The  time  necessary  for 
proper  drying  depends  also  upon  the  weight  of  the  cloth. 

London-shrinking  takes  off  the  gloss  and  much  of  the  cloth  made 
up  into  clothing  is  therefore  refinisned.  Refinishing  may  be  accom- 
plished in  several  ways.  One  method  is  to  book-fold  the  shrunk 
goods,  glazed  cardboards  being  placed  between  the  folds,  and  the 
goods  then  placed  in  a  hydraulic  press.  The  goods  are  kept  in  the 
press  for  about  24  hours,  under  a  pressure  of  2,200  pounds  to  5,000 
pounds,  depending  upon  the  weight  and  kind  of  fabric.  Where 
goods  have  a  tendency  not  to  finish  smoothly,  previously  heated 
cast-iron  plates  are  put  in  the  press  between  the  pieces  of  goods. 

Another  method  is  to  roll  the  goods  between  heavy  smooth  cloths. 
Steam  is  then  passed  through  and  the  finish  of  the  cloth  is  transferred 
to  the  fabric. 

Worsteds  and  woolens  that  are  steam-shrunk  will  shrink  from 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  to  1  inch  to  each  yard  in  the  warp  and  fill- 
ing. Cheviots  and  diagonally  constructed  goods,  like  serges,  are 
liable  to  shrink  more  than  the  above  in  width,  as  much  as  3,  4,  or 
even  5  inches  to  the  yard,  but  in  warp  only  about  1  inch  or  slightly 
more. 

Woolens  and  worsteds  that  are  London-shrunk  will  shrink  about 
IJ  inches  to  every  yard  in  warp  and  filling  if  the  construction  is 
uniform.  If  the  goods  are  not  uniform  in  construction — that  is, 
made  of  yarns  of  different  numbers,  etc. — they  may  shrink  2  inches 
to  the  yard  in  warp  and  1  inch  to  the  yard  in  fiUing,  etc.  There  is 
no  definite  fixed  shrinkage.  Two  pieces  of  the  saine  material  and 
yardage  may  show  a  variance  of  shrinkage.  Excessive  shrinkage  is 
due  to  the  stretching  of  the  goods  when  they  are  finished  in  the  mill. 


L 


ii 


264 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


^    ^  1\ 


1^ 


MACHINERY   AND   PROCESSES. 


265 


(  .;■ 


The  cost  of  steam-shrinking  is  about  1  cent  per  yard  and  of  London 
shrinking  about  3  cents  per  yard.  The  cost  of  examining  goods  is 
about  one-half  of  a  cent  per  yard. 

There  is  no  question  a^  to  the  superiority  of  London-shrinking. 
Steam-shrinking  hardens  the  fabric  and  makes  it  feel  coarse.  The 
shape  of  a  coat  made  of  goods  London-shrunk  is  permanent,  that  of  a 
coat  of  steam-shrunk  material  only  temporary.  A  garment  that  has 
been  London-shrunk  will  not  require  pressing  for  several  weeks;  a 
steam-shrunk  garment  requires  pressing  about  twice  a  week  to  hold 
its  shape.  A  steam-shrunk  garment  wdl  shrink  more  with  wear;  a 
London-shrunk  garment  has  received  the  maximum  shrinkage  in  the 
first  instance,  and  it  will  not  shrink  with  use. 

The  various  tests  for  determining  the  strength  and  composition 
of  the  fabric  and  dyes  are  usually  performed  by  the  clothing  manu- 
facturer. The  examination  of  the  cloth  for  defects  is  often  made 
by  the  clothing  house  and  often  by  an  outside  shrinking  establish- 
ment. Shrinkmg,  in  New  York  and  Rochester,  is  usually  done  by 
outside  shrinking  houses  that  do  nothing  else.  In  other  clothing 
centers  the  very  large  houses  do  most  of  the  shrinking  themselves. 

MANTTFACTURINQ  PROCESSES. 

The  processes  of  manufacturing  clothing  vary  with  the  shop,  accord- 
ing to  the  kind  of  product  desired,  the  particular  method  of  manu- 
facture, and  the  degree  of  specialization.  There  are  at  present  two 
distinct  methods  of  manufacturing  a  coat.  One  is  known  as  the 
closed  method  and  the  other  as  the  open  method.  In  the  closed 
coat  the  linings  and  outer  material  are  made  up  separately,  laid 
together  and  stitched  by  a  machine  around  the  edges,  and  then 
turned  like  a  bag.  In  the  open  method  the  linings  and  outside 
material  are  built  up  together,  the  former  being  fitted  and  adjusted 
to  the  outer  fabric  piece  by  piece.  In  the  closed  method  the  collar 
and  undercollar  are  sewed  respectively  to  the  lining  and  the  outer 
shell  of  the  coat.  In  the  open  method  the  collar  is  made  separate 
from  the  rest  of  the  gannent,  and  it  is  set  in  place  by  hand  after  the 
rest  of  the  coat  is  put  together.  Until  a  few  years  ago,  the  closed 
method  was  generally  used  in  the  manufacture  of  ready-made  cloth- 
ing. At  present,  it  is  used  only  to  a  limited  extent  and  only  on 
ch'eap  clothing.  Somo  shops  employ  a  combination  of  the  open  and 
closed  methods. 

The  order  of  the  processes  and  the  number  differ  in  two  shops 
making  the  same  grade  of  goods,  especially  coats.  Some  houses 
employ  more  handwork  than  others,  some  have  more  underpress- 
ing,  and  some  more  examination  of  the  work  while  in  process.  It  is 
impossible  to  draw  up  a  single  set  of  processes  as  applicable  to  the 
clothing  trade.  Following  are  the  coat  processes  of  two  of  the 
largest  houses  in  New  York,  one  manufacturing  the  highest  grade 
and  the  other  a  medium  grade  of  clothing: 


HIGH-GRADE  COAT. 


V 


X, 


Y 


A~ 


-^M 


i 


.  t 


1 .  Collar  making. 

2.  Trimming. 

3.  Serging. 

4.  Pocket  making. 

5.  Joining. 

6.  Seam  and  pocket  pressing. 

7.  lining  making. 

8.  Sleeve  making. 

9.  Stitching  undercollar  and  sewing  up 

eleeve  lining. 

10.  Basting  in  sleeve  lining. 

11.  Basting  wigan  on  sleeves. 

12.  Canvas  making. 

13.  Canvas  basting. 

14.  Pocket  tacking. 

15.  Lapel  padding. 

16.  Canvas  front  pressing. 

17.  Shaping. 

18.  First  basting. 

19.  Edge-tape  sewing. 

20.  Edge-tape  felling. 

21.  Edge-tope  pressing. 


22.  Edge  basting. 

23.  Second  basting. 

24.  Drawing  in  armholes — shoulder-seam 

basting. 

25.  Amihole  pressing. 

26.  Undercollar  basting. 

27.  Felling  in  collar. 

28.  Sleeve  basting. 

29.  Shoulder  and  sleeve  sewing. 

30.  Sleeve  pressing. 

31.  Undercollar  pressing, 

32.  Armhole  basting. 

33.  Collar  covering. 

34.  Coat  stitching. 

35.  Finishing. 

36.  Buttonhole  cutting. 

37.  Buttonhole  making. 

38.  Basting  pulling. 

39.  Edge  pressing. 

40.  Off  pressing. 

41.  Button  sewing. 

42.  Busheling. 


MEDIUM-GRADE  COAT. 


1. 
2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 


Fitting. 

Pocket  making. 

Joining. 

Seam  pressing. 

Canvas  basting. 

Shoulder  closing  and  collar  making. 

Front  pressing. 

Shaping. 

Under  bastii^. 

Tape  sewing. 

Tape  felling. 

Tape  pressing. 

Edge  basting. 

Corner  tacking. 


15.  Lining  basting. 

16.  Sewing  in  sleeves. 

17.  Coat  stitching. 

18.  Armhole  prising. 

19.  Armhole  basting. 

20.  Buttonhole  making. 

21.  Busheling. 

22.  Edge  pressing. 

23.  Shape  pressing. 

24.  Button  sewing. 

25.  Coat  pressing. 

26.  Brushing  and  cleaning. 

27.  Final  pressing. 


On  account  of  variations  of  processes  there  is  no  standard  bv 
which  the  comparative  production  of  various  workers  caa  be  judged. 

Cutters  and  pressers  always,  and  shapers  usually,  are  men  in  every 
shop  and  in  every  locality.  Other  operations  performed  by  men  in 
one  shop  may  be  performed  by  women  in  another.  As  a  general 
rule  it  may  be  stated  that  men  do  the  great  proportion  of  machine 
work,  basting,  and  those  operations,  like  examining,  brushing,  etc., 
which  require  constant  standing.  The  women  do  the  great  propor- 
tion of  felling  and  handwork  and  minor  operations,  like  tackuig, 
sewing  buttons,  buttonholes,  etc. 

The  following  description  of  processes  is  not  intended  as  a  standard. 
They  are  the  processes  as  they  were  found  in  one  of  the  largest  fac- 
tories making  a  fine  line  of  goods  and  will  serve  to  indicate  in  a  general 
way  how  factory  ready-to-wear  clothing  is  made.  Designing  has 
been  omitted,  as  it  is  not  strictly  one  of  the  processes.  Minor  opera- 
tions have  been  omitted.  The  various  examinations  througtiout 
the  processes  have  been  omitted,  only  the  final  examination  being 
given. 


266 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


MACHINERY    AND   PROCESSES, 


267 


.u 


COAT   PROCESSES. 


Cloth  cutting.— The  cloth  is  laid  up  either  by  the  cutter  or  a  helper, 
and  the  cutter  then  proceeds  to  make  his  lay— that  is,  to  lay  out  the 
paper  pattern  of  the  desired  style  and  size  with  the  least  waste  of 
material.  The  cutter  then  marks  the  cloth  with  tailors  chalk. 
Some  houses  have  a  set  of  patterns  for  every  size  of  a  particular 
style.  Others,  however,  having  patterns  for  only  a  few  sizes,  the 
cutter  must  frequently,  in  marking  his  lay,  allow  for  the  size  required. 
Often  a  customer  wants  his  coat  2  inches  shorter  than  the  sample. 
The  cutter  in  marking  must  not  only  do  this  but  must  so  mark  his 
pattern  that  the  style  will  not  be  made  ludicrous  and  out  of  propor- 
tion by  the  2-inch  shortening.  In  laying  out  the  pattern  the  different 
parts  of  the  garment  must  be  marked  out  with  regard  to  stripe  or 
pattern  matching,  shade  matching,  and  saving  of  material. 

While  the  saving  of  material  is  an  important  function  of  the  cutter, 
the  use  of  more  or  less  material  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  the 
manufacturing  pohcy  of  the  house.  If  the  pants  are  made  without 
a  pieced  crotch,  one-eighth  of  a  yard  more  wiU  usually  be  required 
unless  the  pattern  is  reversed.  Reversing  the  pattern  often,  however, 
makes  the  goods  cut  in  this  manner  appear  shadexl.  Some  houses 
not  particular  as  to  the  crease  being  parallel  with  the  stripe,  w'lU  lav 
in  the  pattern  of  the  pants  so  as  to  take  advantage  of  the  edge  of 

Most  houses  cut  their  goods  folded,  but  in  some  of  the  very  best 
houses  the  goods  are  cut  on  the  open— that  is,  the  goods  are  opened 
up  to  their  fuU  width.  The  goods  after  behig  marked  arc  cut  by 
shears,  electric  cutters,  or  long  knives  worked  by  hand.  If  the 
cutting  is  doiie  by  a  long  knife,  the  table  contains  iron-lined  slote 
through  which  the  knife  is  worked.  Most  houses  employ  the  electric 
cutter,  as  it  is  most  economical  for  bulk  cutting.  The  long  knife  is 
used  to  some  extent  in  cutting  cloth,  but  its  chief  use  is  for  cutting 
linings  and  trimmings.  Shears  are  employed  m  many  of  the  houses 
manufacturing  the  finest  grade  of  goods.  These  houses  usually  cut 
the  garments  one  or  at  most  two  at  a  time,  because,  making  the 
finest  line,  their  orders  for  any  particular  style  and  size  are  small,  and 
two  buyers  will  rarely  purchase  the  same  style  without  minor  changes. 
The  cloth  being  often  stripes  or  plaids,  it  is  very  difficult  to  match 
these  properly  in  order  to  permit  bulk  cutting.  Shears  are  used  to 
cut  these  single  garments  because  shears  are  most  convenient  and 
accurate  for  cutting  two  or  four  thicknesses  of  cloth. 

Lininq  and  trimming  cutting.— Limv.^  and  trimmings  hke  canvas, 
haircloth,  stays,  pockets,  etc.,  are  cut  by  a  trimming  cutter,  who 
usually  is  not  as  proficient  as  the  cloth  cutter.  ITiis  cuttmg  is 
generally  done  by  electiic  machines  or  lono;  knives. 

From*  the  cutter  the  cut  goods  go  to  the  trimmer,  who  matches 
up  the  fabrics  with  the  linings,  buttons,  and  sdk  and  assembles 
everythir.g  that  is  to  be  employed  in  making  the  garment. 

Machine  operating.— The  darts  are  first  sewed  together  on  a  sowmg 
machhie.  T^e  dart  is  the  underarm  cut,  where  the  goods  has  been 
taken  out  to  make  the  coat  conform  to  the  shape  of  the  body.  It  is 
the  line  seam  running  from  the  armhole  to  the  pocket.  The  same 
operator  sews  in  the  pockets.  Pocket  work  is  done  m  tearas  one 
operator  piecing  the  pocket  and  another  sewmg  it  m.     (i^ig.  ^2.) 


L 


■  Umlfrwesdrui  — Tho  pockets  are  then  pressed.  Throughout  the 
nrocS^SZreihfg  Fs  frequent,  and  is  generally  done  on  preying 
ZS  ^f  varying  pressures:^  Light-pressured  machmes  are  used  to 
♦h«  liniiKTs  and  scams  heavv-pressured  machmes  for  the  canvas  ana 
for  t^e^fees  on  he^y  overcoats.  The  iron  of  the  pressing  machme 
s  hSld  ly  g^San  be  used  ahnost  immediately  a  ter  hghtmg. 
The  ™rl  is  secured  by  the  presser  standmg  on  a  foot  lever 

Jmnina  —The  seams  of  the  coat  are  next  closed  on  the  mside  on 
a  seZne  macWne  The  front,  side,  and  back  seams  are  closed,  put- 
ting togltherthe  outer  shoU  of  the  co.t.     The  seams  are  then  pressed 

""fir'itin?  ar^  paAZi«^.-^ver  a  piece  of  -«;«f  j^^T^d 
a  niece  of  haircloth,  then  wigan,  and  then  felt.  The  haircloth  ana 
fo^  arc  ncc^sarv  to  hold  up  the  chest  of  the  coat,  the  wigan  to  hold 
the  front  fim  The  operator  puts  these  four  fabrics  m  proper  posi- 
tion and  se,^' them  oTa  paddLg  machine,  which  makes  one  zigzag 
sXh  to  hoTd  them  togetU.  The  needle  of  this  machme  works  m 
a  triangle  ThS  maclSne  can  also  bo  «sed  for  pad^g  these  parts 
bnt  in  tWs  factory  tho  padding  is  done  by  hand.  With  needle  a.nd 
fcUd  *a  irisewLeveFal  huifdred  haW^n^h  -g^^titc^^^ 
give  the  combined  four  parts  strength  and  flexibihty.     Ihe  canvas 

'  KS  tX^-TirclfJ'^LtlltSi^^^  the  cloth  onto 
the  iTdded  canvas.  The  work  is  done  by  hand  with  needle  and 
to^d  The  baater  makes  four  or  five  rows  of  stitches  of  about 
Saif  to  three-fourths  of  an  i.,ch,  the  stitches  running  the  length 
of  the  coat  and  according  to  the  desired  shape  of  the  garment.  The 
nJdcd  canvas  is  thus  hfld  in  position  until  tho  coat  is  completed 
^SSTnl-The  canvas^  the  lapels  of  the  coat  is  next  padded 
or  ooverKtR  numerous  rows  of  smaU  zigza-  stitches  about  one- 
fourth  of  irinch  long.  The  work  is  done  by  hand  with  needle  and 
thread  PaddTng  insures  strength  and  flexibility.  In  some  factories 
ttlapel  i^  pldid  by  machine.     The  lapels  and  fronts  are  then 

^""sirw  fr<mts  and  lapeh.-The  shaper  gives  the  required  form  to 
the  cdW  the  coat.  With  sheare  he  trims  off  any  unnecessary  cloth 
or  canva^  on  the  lapel  and  front  so  that  the  ed-e  «  even  and  wiU 
nnt  he  unnecessarily  thick  when  the  coat  is  sewed.  The  shaper  has 
cardboSSs Vr  the  various  style  lapels  Selecting  the  proper 
one  he  places  it  upon  tho  garment  and  cute  the  lapel  to  conform  to 

^^Umtui  or  first  haMing.-The  underliner  receives  the  linings 
pre^^ly  made  %  the  Uning  maker.  The  Unmg  has  been  seanied 
on Tscwlng  machine,  the  facings  sewed  on,  and  the  inside  pocket 
made  The  hning  is  then  pressed.  The  underhner  receives  the 
Zt  after  the  lapels  have  been  shaped,  puts  the  inside  and  outs  de 
of  the  coat  together,  bastes  the  Unmg  to  the  coat  and  bastes  the 
edges  so  that  W  can  be  sewed  together.     The  facmgs  are  then 

^^:^i  edge^,  feUirw,  and  pressing  tape -A.  whit*  tape  about  three- 
eiehtS  of  ^  i^ch  wide  is  sewed  around  the  edge  of  the  coat  on  a 
Sg  machine  to  prevent  the  edge  from  stretc^mg  A  great  deal 
oCT  iTrequired  ii  putting  on  this  tape.  U  either  too  loose  or  too 
tight,  it  will  make  a  poorly  fitting  coat. 


m 


Hi 


268 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


MACHINERY    AND   PROCESSES. 


269 


'i! 


The  inner  edge  of  the  tape  is  felled  to  the  canvas  by  hand 
1  he  seam  where  the  lining  and  the  outside  of  the  coat  have  been 
united  IS  then  pressed  and  the  slight  fulbess  of  the  cloth  at  the  edge 
IS  shrunk.     (Fig.  34.)  ^ 

Edge  hasting,  underhasting,  and  shmiUer  seming.—The  coat  is  then 
turned  right  side  out.  With  comparatively  fine  hand  stitches  the 
stitc^in  ^^^^  ^^  basted,  to  hold  it  even,  preparatory  to 

The  coat  after  edge  basting,  goes  to  the  second  baster,  who 
adjusts  the  lining  of  the  coat  to  the  outside.  He  bastes  the  lining 
in  the  proper  place,  and  also  bastes  the  plaits  in  the  hning  so  that 
they  wiU  be  in  the  proper  places  when  pressed.  These  plaits  are 
put  m  the  lining  to  allow  for  expansion. 

Each  shoulder  is  seamed  up  on  a  sewing  machme  without  anv 
prehminary  bastmg  and  is  pressed. 

CoZZarmaHrw.— Extreme  care  is  taken  in  making  the  collar.  The 
undercollar  is  first  made.  It  consists  of  a  piece  of  cloth  of  the  same 
material  as  the  coat  or  a  piece  of  cloth  used  specially  for  this  purpose 
lo  this  IS  fastened  a  piece  of  canvas,  of  which  the  leaf  or  standing 
part  has  been  covered  with  machine-made  stitches  to  make  it  firm 
and  stiff.  The  undercoUar  maker  then  pads  the  canvas  by  hand 
with  needle  and  thread,  covering  the  entire  canvas  strip  with  small 
zigzag  stitches  of  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  to  give  the  under- 
collar strength  and  flexibihty.  To  make  sure  that  the  collar  will 
he  do\^^  flat  on  the  coat,  the  cloth  facing  of  the  collar  should  be  tijrht 
while  the  canvas  part  should  be  loose.  In  the  course  of  sewinc^this 
canvas  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  work  in  a  little  fullness  between 
the  stitches  to  put  the  curve  into  the  collar.  The  skill  with  which 
this  hand  stitching  is  done  determines  whether  the  collar  will  he 
smooth  and  graceful  or  be  bulgy  and  shapeless.  This  paddincr  in 
other  factories  is  often  done  by  machine.  "^ 

The  undercoUar  is  then  pressed,  basted  into  the  neck,  and  shrunk 
by  a  presser  to  the  proper  size.  The  presser  dampens  the  under- 
coUar and  presses  It  into  the  proper  shape,  taking  out  the  fuUncss 
that  has  been  allowed  m  the  undercollar  and  canvas.  The  top 
coUar  (cloth)  is  then  basted  to  the  undercoUar.     (Fig  35  ) 

Sleeve  maHw^.— The  sleeves  are  first  seamed  up  on  the  inside  and 
the  seams  are  pressed.     The  cuff  or  bottom  is  basted,  the  turnup 
where  the  goods  are  doubled  back,  is  tacked  down  by  hand  and  the 
cuff  is  pressed. 

The  sleeve  lining  is  seamed  on  a  sewing  machine,  after  which  the 
seam  of  the  lining  is  tacked  by  hand  to  the  seam  of  the  sleeve  The 
sleeve  is  then  turned  right  side  out,  and  the  lining  at  the  cuff  or  sleeve 
bottom  IS  turned  back  and  basted  by  hand. 

With  a  special  hnen  thread  the  entire  armhole  is  stitched  by  hand 
a  Cham  stitch  being  employed.     This  stitching  shortens  the  armhole 
to  conform  to  the  body  of  the  coat.     The  armholes  are  then  pressed 

In  many  houses  the  sleeves  are  basted  in  before  they  are  sewed' 
In  this  factory,  and  in  many  others  making  the  best  grade  of  clothes! 
the  sleeves  are  sewed  in  by  machines  without  any  preliminary  bastincr 
bewing  in  sleeves  without  bastmg  requires  the  greatest  skiU,  and  such 
operators  are  usuaUy  the  best  paid  in  the  shop.  The  armhole  is 
pressed  after  the  sleeve  has  been  sewed  in. 


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The  lining  of  the  coat  is  then  basted  to  the  coat  and  to  the  collar 
at  the  neck  and  armholes,  and  the  armholes  are  basted  around 
with  a  heavy  thread.  At  the  same  time  smaU  cotton  pads  to  give 
the  shoulder  a  weU  rounded  appearance  are  inserted.     (Fig.  36). 

Finishing. — Finishing  consists  in  feUing  the  armholes,  bottoms, 
sleeve  linings,  coUar,  shoulders,  and  everything  that  has  been  basted. 
In  some  shops  f eUing  is  done  by  machines ;  in  this  factory  one  fin- 
isher does  aU  the  feUing  by  hand. 

Buttonhoh  m/iking. — The  coat  goes  to  a  man  who  marks  the  place 
for  buttonholes,  the  points  at  which  the  buttonholes  are  to  be  made 
having  been  indicated  by  the  cutter.  The  marker,  using  a  pattern, 
marks  with  chalk  the  place  for  the  lapel  buttonhole,  and  with  a 
ruler  draws  a  line  across  the  points  designated  by  the  cutter  for  the 
other  buttonholes.  With  a  hand  punch,  which  has  a  blade  the  length 
of  the  required  buttonhole,  he  then  cuts  the  buttonhole  through. 
There  are  two  blades,  a  plain  one  for  the  lapel  and  another  with  an 
eyelet  at  the  end,  for  the  buttonholes.  After  the  buttonholes  have 
been  cut,  the  coat  goes  to  a  girl  who  sews  the  buttonholes  by  hand. 
She  uses  a  hook  stitch  and  a  heavy  twisted  silk  thread,  underneath 
which  is  a  gimp  (a  rope-like  thread).  The  gimp  is  led  around  the 
buttonhole  and  is  overcast  and  looped  by  the  sUk  thread.  The 
buttonholes  are  then  basted  so  that  they  wm  not  stretch  in  pressing 
and  are  tacked  on  a  special  tacking  machine  or  by  hand.  Some  fac- 
tories make  their  buttonholes  by  machinery. 

Ed^e  stitching. — The  edges  of  the  coat  are  then  stitched  on  a 
machine.  Starting  at  the  bottom  of  the  coat  and  up  the  front,  the 
stitching  continues  around  the  collar  and  down  the  other  front,  so 
as  to  stitch  the  complete  edging  of  the  coat. 

AU  basting  threads  that  remain  on  the  coat  are  pulled  out  by  hand. 
All  the  edges  of  the  coat  are  pressed  on  a  high-pressured  machine, 
the  high  pressure  insuring  a  thin  edge. 

Offorjin/il  pressina. — The  coat  then  goes  to  the  presser,  who  with 
a  hand  blower-iron,  heated  internally  by  gas,  presses  the  entire  gar- 
ment. He  takes  out  all  wrinkles,  smooths  out  the  lining,  takes  off 
the  gloss  caused  by  the  heavy  pressing  machines,  and  gives  the  coat 
its  proper  shape.  This  pressing  reauires  skill,  as  the  final  appearance 
of  tne  coat  is  greatly  affected  by  tne  presser's  ability.     (Fig.  37). 

Button  sewing. — After  the  places  for  buttons  have  been  marked, 
by  placing  the  buttonhole  edge  over  the  other  and  making  a  chalk 
mark:  through  the  buttonhole,  a  girl  sews  the  buttons  on  by  hand. 
The  button  must  be  firmly  set  in,  properly  tacked,  and  sewed  through 
the  canvas  but  not  through  the  facing.  Some  factories  sew  their 
buttons  on  by  machinery.     The  button  sewer  also  sews  on  the  already 

Erepared  coat   hanger   and  size  ticket  and  opens  the  buttonhole 
astings. 

Brushing,  cleaning,  examining^  and  husheling. — All  thread  and  un- 
necessary tickets  are  removed  and  the  coat  is  given  a  thorough  brush- 
ing to  remove  aU  dust.  Loose  threads  are  picked  off  and  others  cut 
with  Scissors.  Often  the  brushers  are  also  examiners.  The  examiner 
looks  for  defects  in  the  sewing,  sees  that  the  coat  is  the  proper  size,  and 
looks  to  the  general  workmanship.  The  coats  are  tried  on  liviug 
models  and  examined  as  to  fit  for  the  various  sizes.  This  is  the  final 
examination ;  other  examinations  have  previously  been  held  at  certain 
stages  of  the  work. 


\ 


270 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE    CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


MACHINERY   AND   PROCESSES. 


271 


If  the  final  examiner  finds  anjr  defect  in  the  garment,  it  is  turned 
over  to  the  busheler  for  alteration.  The  busheler  is  an  all-around 
tailor  who  is  generally  capable  of  correcting  all  defects  found  by  the 
examiner. 

The  qoat  is  now  ready  for  shipment.  The  coats  are  hung  up  on 
racks,  each  coat  on  a  separate  hanger,  to  prevent  it  from  becoming 
wrinkled  or  crushed,  so  that  repressing  will  not  bo  necessary  when 
the  goods  are  shipped.     (Fig.  38). 

VEST   PROCESSES. 

Cntting. — See  coat  processes. 

Welt  trimming, — The  making  of  the  vest  begins  with  the  trimming 
of  the  welt,  the  patch  or  the  flap  of  the  pocket.  The  place  for  the 
pocket  or  welt  is  marked  in  the  cutting  room.  The  welt  trimmer  with 
shears  cuts  the  welt  to  the  proper  length,  according  to  the  stripe  or 
pattern  of  the  material.  The  welt  maker  then  seams  up  the  darts  on 
a  sewing  machine  and  also  sews  the  three  sides  of  the  weft  to  the  lining 
of  the  pocket.  The  sewing  is  done  on  the  inside.  The  welt  sewed 
to  the  pocket  lining  is  turned  right  side  out,  and  the  edges  of  the  welt 
are  stitched  on  a  machine.  The  stitched  welt  and  dart  seams  are 
pressed,  after  which  the  welt  is  trimmed  of!  to  the  proper  width. 
The  welt  is  then  sewed  to  the  fore  part  on  a  sewing  machine,  the  place 
having  been  marked  by  the  cutter.  The  operator,  with  the  aid^of  a 
ruler,  marks  a  straight  line  where  the  welt  is  to  bo  sewed,  care  being 
exercised  that  stripes,  etc.,  match. 

Poclcet'lining  sewing. — The  hnings  of  the  upper  pockets  are  then 
sewed  on  a  machine,  after  which  both  pockets  are  cut  open  with 
shears  and  the  ends  of  the  pockets  notched  so  that  they  will,  when 
pressed,  lie  smooth.  The  seams  of  the  pockets,  where  tliey  have  been 
cut  open,  are  then  pressed.  After  pressing,  the  pockets  are  turned 
right  side  out,  and  the  pocket. linings  trimmed  to  the  proper  length. 

The  pockets  are  stitched  down  to  the  underseam  on  a  machine,  so 
that  the  pockets  will  not  be  pulled  out  when  in  use.  Another  oper- 
ator on  a  machine  then  stitches  around  the  pockets,  sewing  them  up. 

The  edge  of  the  welt  is  tacked  down  on  a  single-needle  macliine,  so 
that  it  will  not  pull  out. 

Wigan  hasting  and  trimming. — An  operator  on  a  chain-stitch  ma- 
chine bastes  the  wigan  under  each  vest  front  with  one  row  of  chain 
stitches  and  another  girl  with  shears  trims  the  wigan  to  conform  to 
the  edge  of  the  vest  and  also  trims  the  armholes.  Tlie  welt  tacks  are 
then  pressed  down. 

Shaping. — The  front  edge,  including  the  lapels,  and  the  bottom 
edge  of  the  vest  are  then  trimmed  by  shears. 

Lining  maling.— An  operator  on  a  machine  seams  the  facing  and 
the  darts  in  the  lining,  and  sews  the  front  facing  on  the  lining.  The 
inside  vest-pocket  maker  then  makes  the  completer  inside  vest  pocket, 
makes  the  welt,  cuts  it  open  with  shears,  turns  the  pocket  in,  tacks 
the  comers  of  the  welt,  and  sews  up  the  pocket  on  the  inside. 

The  underliner  bastes  together  by  hand  with  large  stitches  the 
facing  that  has  been  sewed  to  the  lining  and  the  right  side  of  the  vest. 

Taping. — The  neck  pieces  are  seamed  on  a  sewing  machine.  The 
operator  then  sews  a  tape  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  width 
^ound  the  front  and  bottom  edges  of  the  vest  and  around  the  arm- 


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holes.  The  neck  piece,  seams,  and  tape  are  pressed  and  the  vest  is 
turned  right  side  out. 

Ba^ck  making. — A  machine  operator  then  makes  and  sews  on  the 
buckle  strap,  seams  up  the  dart  and  center  back,  and  joins  the  inside 
and  outside  lining  bottoms. 

The  front  and  bottom  edges  and  the  armholes  are  next  stitched  on 
a  sewing  machine. 

Plait  making  and  hacking. — A  girl  hand-bastes  a  plait  in  the  lining 
to  allow  for  expansion,  and  also  puts  a  few  stitches  in  the  width  where 
the  lining  projects  over  the  facing.  She  then  cuts  off  the  surplus 
lining  with  shears. 

The  operator  receives  the  back  lining  already  made  and  seams  it 
on  a  sewing  machine  to  the  shoulders,  sides,  and  armholes.  The 
seaming  is  done  on  the  wrong  side.  The  vest  is  then  turned  right 
side  out. 

Buttonhole  making. — The  cutter  marks  the  place  for  the  top  and 
bottom  buttonholes.  The  buttonhole  marker  puts  the  top  and 
bottom  marks  on  a  graduated  board,  which  enables  him  to  mark 
with  chalk  the  places  where  the  other  buttonholes  ought  to  be, 
according  to  the  number  of  buttonholes  for  that  particular  style. 
He  then  places  the  vest  on  a  chopping  block,  and  with  a  mallet 
and  a  chisel-like  blade  having  an  eyelet  at  the  end,  chops  out  the 
buttonholes.  The  buttonhole  is  supposed  to  be  one-half  inch  from 
the  edge,  but  the  marker  uses  only  his  eye  in  getting  this  distance. 

The  buttonholes  having  been  cut,  the  vest  goes  to  a  girl  who 
sews  the  buttonholes  by  hand.  She  uses  a  hook  stitch  and  a  heavy 
twisted  silk  thread  underneath  which  is  a  gimp  (a  rope-like  thread). 
The  gimp  is  led  around  the  buttonhole  and  is  overcast  and  looped  by 
the  sdk  thread.  The  buttonholes  are  then  basted  so  that  they  will 
not  stretch  in  pressing. 

Neck  felling. — A  girl  fells  the  neck  inside  and  outside,  by  hand, 
sews  on  the  fcuckle,  and  tacks  the  buckle  strap  to  the  inside  lining. 

Off  pressing. — The  entire  vest  is  then  pressed  with  a  hand  blower- 
iron,  neated  internally  by  gas.  The  presser  takes  off  the  gloss 
caused  by  the  heavy  pressing  machines,  takes  out  wrinkles,  smooths 
out  the  lining,  and  gives  the  garment  its  shape  and  finish. 

Button  sewing. — ^In  the  coat  the  buttonholes  were  placed  over  the 
other  edge  and  a  mark  for  buttons  made  through  the  buttonholes. 
In  the  vest  a  horizontal  line  is  drawn  even  with  the  buttonholes. 
A  point  is  then  made  by  ruler,  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  from  the  edge 
for  the  top  button  and  five-eighths  of  an  inch  from  the  edge  for  the 
bottom  button.  A  ruler  is  then  drawn  through  these  two  points 
and  a  mark  is  made  where  this  line  intersects  the  horizontal  lines. 
These  intersecting  points  indicate  where  the  buttons  are  to  be  sewed. 

After  the  place  has  been  marked  for  buttons,  they  are  sewed  on  by 
hand.  The  buttons  must  be  firmly  set  in,  properly  tacked,  and 
sewed  so  that  the  stitches  will  not  show  through  the  facing.  The 
button  sewer  opens  the  buttonhole  bastings  and  sews  on  the  size 
tickets. 

Brushing,  cleaning,  examining,  and  husheling. — The  cleaner,  with  a 
hand  brush  and  whisk  broom,  brushes  the  vest  thoroughly.  He  picks 
off  loose  threads  and  cuts  other  threads  with  small  scissors.  Often 
the  brusher  is  also  the  examiner.  He  looks  for  defects  in  the  work- 
pianship  and  sees  that  the  vest  is  the  proper  size.    Some  vests  are 


272 


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MACHINERY   AND   PROCESSES. 


273 


t 


tried  on  to  insure  proper  fit.  This  examination  is  the  final  one; 
throughout  the  various  processes,  at  certain  intervals,  there  have 
been  examinations  of  the  work  up  to  that  time. 

The  vest  does  not  often  require  busheling,  because  it  is  of  much 
simpler  construction  than  the  coat. 

Tne  vest  is  now  readv  for  shipment.  It  is  sent  to  the  stock  room 
to  be  assembled  with  the  proper  coat  and  pants. 

PANTS   PROCESSES. 

Cutting. — See  coat  processes. 

Bastinq  crotch  pieces. — A  girl  hand  bastes  the  crotch  pieces  on  each 
part.     There  are  four  parts,  two  front  and  two  back. 

Serffing. — To  prevent  the  edges  from  raveling,  all  the  seams  are 
serged  on  a  special  serging  machine  that  makes  a  zigzag  stitch. 

Fly  buttonhole  maJcing. — The  fly  buttonholes  are  generally  made  by 
machine.  The  place  for  the  buttonhole  is  marked  by  the  trimmer. 
The  buttonhole  machine  sews  around  the  buttonhole,  and  then  a 
plunger  knife  cuts  it  through.  The  top  and  back  pocket  buttonholes 
are  made  by  hand,  being  cut  by  shears  and  then  sewed. 

Piecing  out,  poclcet  stitching,  and  closing. — An  operator  on  a  machine 
makes  both  flies,  sews  in  the  front  and  back  pockets,  and  sews  the 
two  fly  pieces  to  the  lining.     The  pockets  are  basted  and  pressed. 

An  operator  on  a  machine  then  stitches  around  the  pockets,  after 
which  tine  pockets  are  turned,  closed  up,  and  pressed. 

This  factory  sews  the  pockets  because  it  has  been  found  that  the 
serging  machine  occasionally  misses  a  stitch  resulting  in  a  pocket  with 
a  hole. 

Seaming. — ^The  four  separate  parts  of  the  pants,  front  and  back  of 
each  leg,  are  matched  up  for  seaming. 

The  seamer  takes  the  iront  and  back  lengths  for  each  side  and  sews 
the  seams  on  a  machine.  The  out-seam  is  usually  a  raised  cord  seam, 
made  by  first  sewing  a  plain  seam,  then  gathering  or  making  a  plait, 
and  again  seaming.  The  out-seam  of  each  part  is  sewed  first  and 
then  the  in-seams  are  made  and  the  buttonhole  fly  sewed  on.  The 
seams  are  then  pressed. 

In  the  case  of  pants  for  stout  men,  as  a  continuous  waistband 
would  be  too  loose,  a  separate  waistband  is  sewed  in  after  the  out- 
seam  has  been  stitched. 

Serging  fiy,  putting  in  canvas,  top  turning,  and  tachin/j. — The  button- 
hole fly  is  then  serged  on  a  special  machine,  which  trims  the  edge 
and  tacks  down  the  end  with  a  zigzag  stitch.  Canvas  is  sewed 
around  the  waistband  by  machine.  The  top  of  the  pants  and  the 
pockets  are  hand  basted,  after  which  the  top  of  the  pants  is  pressed. 

The  pockets  are  tacked  on  a  special  tacking  machine.  The  machine 
makes  a  definite  number  of  stitches  and  makes  a  bar  tack  so  that  the 
pocket  can  not  stretch  or  tear.  Only  the  front  pockets  are  tacked  on 
this  special  machine.  The  back  and  watch  pockets  are  tacked  on  the 
ordinary  sewing  machine. 

Joining. — An  operator  on  a  machine  then  stitches  the  top  of  the 
pants,  sews  on  the  lower  end  of  the  belt  loops,  and  seams  the  pants 
together  in  the  crotch. 

Fastening  loops  and  finishing. — The  loops,  the  lower  ends  of  which 
have  been  sewed  on  by  machine,  are  folded  over  the  top  of  the  pants 


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and  sewed  down  by  hand,  on  the  inside  just  over  the  edge.  The  back 
seam  is  then  pressed. 

The  finisher  sews  on  the  waistband  on  the  inside  and  fells  the 
waistband;  she  also  sews  on  the  fly  buttons,  the  place  for  these 
buttons  having  been  determined  by  placing  the  buttonhole  fly  over 
the  other  fly  and  making  a  chalk  mark  through  the  buttonhole.  The 
finisher  also  sews  on  the  top  and  back  buttons.  All  the  basting 
threads  are  now  pulled  out  by  hand. 

Pressing. — A  pressor  with  a  gas-blower  iron  shapes  the  legs  of  the 
pants,  pressing  them  on  the  wrong  side.  An  off  presser  with  a  gas- 
olower  iron  then  presses  the  pants  on  the  right  side.  He  takes  out 
the  wrinkles,  takes  off  the  gloss  caused  by  the  heavy  pressing  machines, 
and  gives  the  pants  a  finished  appearance. 

Brushing,  cleaning,  examining^  and  husheling. — ^All  threads  and 
unnecessary  tickets  are  then  removed.  The  pants  are  brushed 
thoroughly  to  remove  all  dust.  The  brusher  is  often  the  examiner 
also.  He  looks  for  defects  in  the  sewing  and  general  workmanship 
and  sees  that  the  pants  are  the  proper  size.  This  examination  is  the 
final  one,  but  throughout  the  various  processes,  at  certain  intervals, 
there  have  been  examinations  of  the  work  done  up  to  that  time. 

The  making  of  the  pants  is  simple  as  compared  with  the  making  of 
the  coat.  Fit  and  lines  are  not  so  important  and  defects  rarely  occur, 
so  that  only  occasionally  are  pants  sent  to  the  busheler. 

The  pants  are  now  ready  for  shipment  and  are  sent  to  the  stock 
room  to  be  assembled  with  the  proper  coat  and  vest. 

IWU**— 16 ^18 


II 

'1 


CHAPTER  IX. 
FOBEIGH  TBADE. 

IMPOBTS. 

The  imports  of  clothing  into  the  United  States  are  almost  neglirible 
and  are  generally  Engli^  overcoats,  novelty  garments  like  the  Bal- 
macaan,  and  golfing  and  motoring  clothes.  No  sack  suits  are 
imported.  The  people  in  this  country  who  demand  English  clothes 
are  few.  They  reside  usually  in  the  seaport  cities,  New  York,  Boston, 
etc.,  and  are  in  touch  with  England,  either  socially  or  commercially. 
A  few  people  buy  English  clothes  because  of  the  English  label. 
Some  Amencan  manufacturers  put  fictitious  foreign  labels  on  Ameri- 
can goods  to  please  a  certain  class  of  purchasers. 

Enghsh  ready-made  clothing  is  not  comparable  with  the  American. 
The  English  hand  tailoring  is  poor,  except  in  the  finest  custom  work. 
Very  conservative  styles  of  men's  clothing  are  worn  in  England ;  the 
moaels  do  not  change  from  one  season  to  another  as  they  do  in  this 
country.  High-salaried  designers  are  employed  by  the  larger  clothing 
factories  in  the  United  States,  who  are  constantly  introducing 
attractive  styles.  Manufacturers  in  the  United  States  assert  that 
the  styles  of  clothing  made  in  other  countries  are  so  inferior  to  the 
styles  originated  in  this  country  that  the  foreign  product  can  find 
Httle  sale  here.  The  people  of  tne  United  States  have  been  educated 
to  the  behef  that  American  clothing  is  better  in  style  than  the  clothing 
made  anywhere  else  in  the  world,  and  this  befief  is  common  with 
almost  all  classes  of  people.  Even  the  workingmen  in  the  United 
States  demand  style  in  the  clothing  they  buy.  The  preference  of  the 
American  pubhc  for  American  styles  is  a  great  protection  to  manu- 
facturers 01  clothing. 

American  people  believe  not  only  that  the  styles  of  clothing  for 
men  that  are  originated  in  the  United  States  are  superior  to  those 
that  come  from  other  countries,  but  also  that  the  workmanship  of 
the  domestic  product  is  superior  to  the  workmanship  on  ready-made 
clothing  produced  in  foreign  coimtries.  This  beliei  accounts,  in  a 
measure,  for  the  tremendous  increase  in  the  production  of  factory- 
made  clothing  in  the  United  States  during  the  last  20  years. 

While  the  manufacture  of  ready-made  clothing  is  one  of  the  large 
industries  in  the  United  States,  this  industry  is  of  comparatively 
small  importance  in  other  countries.  The  completeness  of  the 
factory  equipment,  the  thoroughness  of  the  factory  organization, 
and  the  efficiency  of  the  wormng  force,  which  are  noticeable  in 
many  establishments  for  making  men's  clothing  in  this  country, 
are  not  even  approached  in  other  countries.  Nearly  all  the  ready- 
made  clothing  manufactured  in  Europe  is  of  low-grade,  cheap  varie- 
ties, and  is  almost  invariably  manufactured  in  small  factories,  in 
shops,  or  in  the  homes  of  the  workers, 

274 


^^ 


FOREIGN   TKADE. 


275 


i 


^ 

^      V 


The  statistics  of  imports  do  not  separately  specify  the  imports  of 
men's  clothing,  but  it  is  known  that  such  imports  are  very  small. 
No  complaint  about  foreign  competition  was  made  by  any  manufac- 
tiu^ers  interviewed  during  this  investigation. 

The  imports  for  consumption  of  wearing  apparel,  composed  wholly 
or  in  part  of  wool,  worsted,  etc.,  during  the  18  fiscal  years  1898  to 
1915  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Table  53^Imports  fob  Consumption  op  Weaeinq  Apparel,  Composed  Wholly 
OE  IN  Paet  of  Wool,  Woested,  Etc.,  and  Duty  Collected,  Fiscal  Yeaes 
Ended  June  30,  1898,  to  1915. 


Fiscal 
years. 

Imports. 

Duty  col- 
lected. 

Aver- 

value 

per 

pound. 

Average 

Tariff  acts. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

ad  valo- 
rem rate 
of  duty. 

Act  of  July  24, 1897:  Manufactures  composed 
wholly  or  in  part  of  wool,worsted,  the  hair 
of  the  camel,  goat ,  alpaca,  or  other  animals: 
Clothing,  ready  made,  and  articles  of  wear- 
ing apparel  made  up  or  manufactured 
wholly  or  in  part,  not  including  hats  of 
wool,  knitted  articles,  shawls,  cloaks,  dol- 
mans, jackets,  talmas,  ulsters,  orother  out- 
side garments  for  ladies'  and  children's 
apparel,  and  articles  of  similar  description 
or  used  for  like  purposes.  Rate  of  duty, 
44  cents  per  pound  and  60  per  cent  ad  va- 
lorem  

]ol898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 

1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 
«>1914 

«:1914 
1915 

169,235 
297,421 
332,728 
318,020 
394,675 
510,491 
412,776 
364,989 
421,063 
383,259 
436,724 
359,575 

525,452 
607,264 
576,040 
476,009 
302,929 

1568,409 

707, 795 

818, 198 

865,351 

1,003,783 

1,336,653 

1,074,681 

1,020,811 

1,153,271 

1,016,250 

1,101,924 

969,433 

1,353,074 
1,794,081 
1,608,156 
1,481,068 
901,380 

732,320 
1,317,649 

$415, 506 
555,542 
637,319 
659, 140 
775,927 
1,026,608 
826,430 
773,082 
877,230 
778,384 
853,313 
739,873 

1,043,043 
1,343,645 
1,218,351 
1,098,085 
674,115 

256,312 
461,177 

$3.36 
2.38 
2.46 
2.72 
2.54 
2.62 
2.60 
2.80 
2.74 
2.65 
2.52 
2.70 

2.58 
2.95 
2.79 
3.11 
2.98 

73.10 

78.49 
77.89 
76.17 
77.30 
76.80 
76.90 
75.73 
76.06 
76.-59 
77.44 
76.34 

Act  of  Aug.  5, 1909:  Same  classification  and 
rate 

77.09 
74.89 
75.76 

Act  of  Oct  3, 1913:  Manufactures  composed 
wholly  or  in  part  of  wool ,  worsted ,  the  hair 
of  the  camel ,  goat,  alpaca,  or  other  animals* 
Clothing,  ready  made,  and  articles  of  wear- 
ing apparel,  made  up  or  manufactured 
wholly  or  in  part,  not  Including  gloves, 
mittens,  hats,  shawls,  hosiery,  or  other 
knitted  articles.  Kate  of  duty,  35  per  cent 
ad  valorem 

74.14 
74.79 

35.00 
35.00 

•  July  24, 1897,  to  June  30, 1898.      »  July  1 ,  1913,  to  Dec.  31, 1913.      c  Jan.  1, 1914,  to  June  30, 1914. 

By  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  during  the  fiscal  years  1898  to 
1909,  while  the  Dingley  Act  was  in  force,  the  computed  ad  valorem 
rate  of  duty  varied  from  73.10  to  78.49,  and  that  during  the  fiscal 
years  1909  to  1913,  while  the  Payne-Aldrich  Act  was  in  force,  the 
computed  ad  valorem  rate  of  duty  varied  from  74.14  to  77.09.  By 
the  Simmons-Underwood  Act  the  rate  was  reduced  to  35  per  cent  ad 
valorem. 

The  table  shows  that  during  the  period  from  July  1,  1913,  to 
December  31,  1913,  the  imports  amoimted  to  $901,380  imder'the 
rates  of  duty  of  the  Payne-Aldrich  Act;  and  during  the  period  from 
January  1,  1914,  to  July  1,  1914,  the  imports  amounted  to  $732,320 
under  the  Underwood-Simmons  Act,  a  total  of  $1,633,700  during  the 
fiscal  year  1914. 

The  following  table  shows  the  imports  for  consumption  of  specified 
articles  of  wearmg  apparel,  manufactured  of  cotton,  for  18  years,  the 
fiscal  years  1898  to  1915,  inclusive; 


il 


276 


men's  factoey-made  clothing  industry. 


Table  54.— Imports  for  Consumption  op  Cotton  Wearing  Apparel,  and  Duty 
Collected,  Fiscal  Years  Ended  June  30,  1898  to  1915. 


Tar  ifl  acts. 


Act  of  July  24, 1897:  Wearing  apparel  of  cotton  or  other  vege- 
table fiber  not  otherwise  provided  for:  Clothing,  ready- 
made,  and  articles  of  wearing  apparel  of  every  description, 
made  up  or  manufactured,  wholly  or  in  part,  by  the  tailor, 
seamstress,  or  manufacturer,  and  not  otherwise  provided 
for;  including  neckties  or  neckwear,  and  all  kinds  of  cotton 
gloves;  not  including  corsets,  collars  and  cutis,  hosiery,  or 
other  knit  goods 


Act  of  Aug.  5,  1909:  Wearing  apparel  composed  of  cotton  or 
other  vegetable  fll>er  not  otherwise  provided  for:  Clothing, 
readv  made,  and  articles  of  wearing  apparel  of  every  de- 
scription, of  which  cotton  or  other  vegetable  fiber  is  the 
component  material  of  chief  value,  made  up  or  manufac- 
tured wholly  or  in  part  by  the  tailor,  seamstress,  or  manu- 
facturer, and  not  otherwise  provided  for;  including  neck- 
ties or  neckwear,  gloves,  except  for  men  and  boys;  not  in- 
cluding corsets,  collars  and  cuffs,  hosiery,  or  other  knit  goods. 

Act  of  Oct.  3,  1913:  Wearing  apparel  composed  of  cotton  or 
other  vegetable  fiber,  except  flax,  hemp,  or  ramie,  or  of 
which  cotton  or  other  vegetable  fiber  is  the  component 
material  of  chief  value,  or  of  same  with  india-rubber:  Cloth- 
ing, readv-made,  and  articles  of  wearing  apparel  of  every 
description,  made  up  or  manufactured  wholly  or  in  part  by 
the  tailor,  seamstress,  or  manufacturer,  not  especially  pro- 
vided for;  including  neckties  or  neckwear;  not  including 
corsets,  gloves,  collars  £md  cuffs,  hosiery,  or  other  knit  goods. 


Fiscal 

Vahie  of 

Duty 

Rate  of 

years. 

imports. 

collected. 

duty. 

Percent. 

01898 

$546,744 

$273,372 

50.00 

1899 

622,012 

311,006 

50.00 

1900 

746,526 

373,263 

5a  00 

1901 

902,688 

451,344 

50.00 

1902 

1,020,735 

510,368 

50.00 

1908 

1,556,834 

778,417 

5a  00 

1904 

1,616,862 

808,431 

50.00 

1905 

1,435,457 

717,728 

5a  00 

1906 

1,703,837 

851,919 

saoo 

1907 
1908 

2,766,144 
3,221,322 

1,383,072 
1,660,661 

5a  00 

5a  00 

1909 

1,564,093 

782,347 

5a  00 

1910 

2,028,539 

1.014,269 

5a  00 

1911 

1,884,849 

942,425 

saoo 

}  1912 

1,871,477 

935,739 

5a  00 

1913 

2,277,876 

1,13S,938 

50.00 

t>1914 

676,684 

338,342 

saoo 

a914 

387,926 

116,378 

saoo 

1915 

310,809 

93,243 

saoo 

a  July  24, 1807,  to  June  30, 1898.       »  July  1, 1913,  to  Oct.  3, 1913.       c  Oct.  4, 1913,  to  June  30, 1914. 

The  imports  shown  in  this  table  include  shirts  and  other  garments 
for  men  and  garments  for  women  and  children.  It  is  impossible 
to  ssLj  how  large  were  the  imports  of  any  particular  kind  oi  cotton 
clothmg. 

As  shown  by  Table  53,  the  imports  of  woolen  wearing  apparel 
amounted  to  $1,633,700  ($901,380 -f  $732,320)  during  the  fiscal  year 
1914,  and  as  shown  by  Table  54,  the  imports  of  cotton  wearing  apparel 
amounted  to  $1,064,610  ($676,684 +  $387,926)  during  the  same  year. 
The  total  imports  of  woolen  and  cotton  wearing  apparel,  including 
ready-made  clothing  for  men,  women,  and  children,  auring  the  fiscw 
year  1914  amounted  to  $2,698,310.  This  amount  is  a  very  small 
proportion  of  the  value  of  the  production  of  men's  and  boy's  clothing 
m  the  United  States,  as  reported  by  the  Census  of  Manufactures  and 
as  shown  by  Table  3.  The  production  of  such  clothing  in  the  United 
States  m  1909  was  $485,677,493. 

The  rates  of  duty  on  woolen  cloths,  as  well  as  the  rates  on  woolen 
clothing,  prescribed  by  the  tariff  act  of  1913  became  effective  January 
1,  1914.  It  was  expected  that  on  account  of  the  reduction  in  the 
rates  of  duty  there  would  be  large  imports  of  woolen  cloths.  The 
field  work  in  this  investigation  was  done  during  the  spring  of  1915. 
Very  few  of  the  estabhsmnents  that  reported  had  used  any  foreign 
fabrics  in  the  clothing  they  had  manulactured  during  the  previous 
year.  Of  the  64  establishments  canvassed  only  8  stated  that  they 
had  used  any  foreign  fabrics  or  outer  cloths.  Of  the  fabrics  used  by 
these  8  manufactiirers  one  manufacturer  stated  that  he  imported  16 


-    '^ 


^  J^ 


•'^  '■  i 


FOEEIGN   TRADE. 


277 


to  18  })or  cent,  three  imported  4  per  cent,  one  1  percent,  and  three  a 
still  smaller  percentage.  Some  of  these  8  manufacturers  also  imported 
woolen  linings,  canvas,  and  velvet  to  a  limited  extent.  Many  manu- 
facturers who  were  interviewed  during  this  investigation  claimed  that 
American  materials  are  generally,  at  the  present  time,  equal  to 
EngHsh  fabrics  except  in  the  very  expensive  grades. 

EXPOBTS. 

The  exports  of  clothing  from  the  United  States  are  insignificant  as 
compared  with  the  domestic  production.  Most  of  the  exports  of 
clothing  before  the  war  began  m  Europe  were  sent  to  North  Ameri- 
can countries,  principally  Canada  and  Mexico.  The  exports  of  cloth- 
ing to  Europe  were  very  small  before  the  war  began,  but  a  few  of  the 
larger  manufacturers  have  sold  goods  to  retailers  in  London,  Berlin, 
Vienna,  Paris,  Sydney,  Melbourne,  and  other  large  cities,  usually  on 
the  same  terms  as  they  sell  their  goods  in  this  country.  Clothing 
that  is  exported  to  European  cities  is  manufactured  in  American 
styles  from  European  fabrics  imported  in  bond.  The  first  American 
clothing  sold  in  Europe  was  marketed  in  England  about  1907  or  1908. 
The  most  significant  result  of  the  export  of  American  clothing  to 
Europe  has  been  the  effect  on  the  EngHsh  ready-made  clothing 
manufacturere,  who,  since  the  introduction  of  American  clothes,  have 
improved  their  product  to  a  considerable  extent. 

In  cheap  clothing  American  manufacturers  can  not  compete  with 
the  fore^ers  in  their  own  market,  as  the  cost  of  manuf actunng  in  the 
United  States  is  much  higher  because  of  the  difference  in  the  cost  of 
labor.  German  wholesale  ready-made  manufacturers  still  have  farm- 
ers' wives  making  up  entire  garments.  The  foreigner  who  wants 
a  good  suit  goes  to  his  custom  tailor. 

In  Europe  the  majority  of  people  have  both  the  means  and  the 
desire  for  good  clothing.  A  start  has  been  made  by  several  American 
firms  selling  ready-made  clothing.  American  manufacturers  should 
enter  on  a  campaign  to  educate  Europeans  to  the  advantages  of 
ready-made  clothing,  the  superiority  of  American  workmanship,  and 
the  reasonable  prices  that  put  good,  ready-made  clothing  withm  the 
reach  of  everyone.  The  same  demand  for  ready-made  clothhig  that 
exists  in  this  country  can  be  created  in  Europe  by  earnest,  insistent, 
and  honest  effort.  The  adherence  of  European  manufacturers  to 
obsolete  manufacturing  methods  gives  the  efficient  American  manu- 
facturer his  greatest  opportunity. 

With  a  few  exceptions  American  manufacturers  have  done  little 
to  develop  an  export  trade  outside  of  Canada  and  Mexico.  What 
little  clothing  is  exported  to  Central  and  South  America  is  usually 
sold  through  a  buyer  or  agent  resident  in  this  country.  American 
manufacturers  claim  that  the  South  American  tariffs  are  too  high  and 
operate  against  them,  but  that  with  more  favorable  tariffs  American 
manufacturers  could  do  considerable  business.  The  South  American 
trade  demands  long  selling  terms  and  liberal  credit,  which  American 
manufacturers  have  generally  been  unwilling  to  extend,  demanding 
payment  for  the  goods  or  a  guaranty  from  the  agent.  American 
banking  connections  were  poor.  There  was  no  personal  business 
relationship  between  the  American  manufacturer  and  his  South 
American  customer.  Seldom,  if  ever,  did  the  American  manu- 
facturer's salesman  visit  South  America. 


\\ 


V  ' 


li 


|l; 


278 


MEN  S   FACTOBY-MADE   CLOTHING  INDUSTRY. 


There  is  one  lesson  that  American  manufacturers  who  desire  a 

Profitable  foreign  trade  can  learn  from  successful  European  exporters, 
n  the  past  American  manufacturers  have  made  the  same  goods  for 
foreign  markets  as  for  the  American  market,  with  the  attitude  that 
the  foreign  merchants  could  take  it  or  leave  it.  The  service  of  some 
commodities,  for  example  of  a  watch,  woidd  be  the  same  in  New 
York  or  Vienna.  But  m  wearing  apparel  a  different  condition  pre- 
sents itself.  The  South  American  or  European  does  not  want  Amer- 
ican styles.  What  he  desires  is  his  own  ideas  worked  out  in  up-to- 
date  American  factories.  The  success  of  the  foreign  exporter  is  due 
to  his  catering  to  the  needs  and  desires  of  his  export  trade.  American 
manufacturers  must  do  likewise.  They  must  study  foreign  condi- 
tions, and  foreign  languages,  and  familiarize  themselves  with  the 
customs,  needs,  and  desires  of  their  prospective  customers. 

Though  South  America  offers  some  field  for  the  exportation  of  cloth- 
ing, Europe,  South  Africa,  and  Australasia  offer  the  greatest  oppor- 
tunity. The  majority  of  the  people  in  South  America  wear  only  shirts 
and  trousers  and  those  of  the  cheapest  cotton  material. 

The  64  establishments  that  reported  during  this  investigation 
were  asked  what  percentage  of  tneir  net  sales  was  exported  and 
what  efforts  they  had  made  to  build  up  a  foreign  trade.  One  estab- 
lishment reported  that  10  per  cent  of  its  net  sales  was  exported,  and 
two  that  1  per  cent  of  their  net  sales  was  exported.  Seven  other 
establishments  reported  small  exports.  The  countries  to  which 
exports  were  made  by  these  10  establishments,  so  far  as  stated,  are 
Canada,  the  Bahamas,  Cuba,  Mexico,  Panama,  Peru,  and  AustraUa. 
It  is  known,  however,  that  one  large  establishment  that  declined  to 
report  has  exported  goods  to  London,  England. 

Most  of  the  manufacturers  who  were  interviewed  in  regard  to 
export  trade  confessed  that  they  took  little  interest  in  it,  so  little  in 
fact  that  they  had  not  even  made  inquiries  about  the  best  means  of 
establishing  such  a  trade. 

Mr.  W.  K.  Corwine,  of  New  York  City,  secretary  of  the  National 
Association  of  Clothiers,  in  1915  said  in  an  interview  with  an  agent 
of  the  Bureau: 

There  has  been  no  systematic  effort  to  introduce  American  clothing  in  South 
America. 

A  manufacturer  in  Chicago  said: 

We  have  made  no  investigation  of  the  conditions  surrounding  the  possibility  of 
export  business,  have  no  information,  and,  therefore,  are  not  in  a  position  to  answer 
intelligently  on  this  subject. 

A  member  of  a  very  large  establishment  in  New  York  City  said: 

I  believe  that  the  American  manufacturer  does  not  adapt  himself  to  exporting 
trade  It  apparently  seems  to  be  too  troublesome  for  him.  We  have  not  attempted 
to  establish  a  foreign  trade,  although  we  might  enter  into  this  through  an  expert 
exporter  who  claims  to  be  able  to  place  our  merchandise  in  South  America  as  well  as 
in  Spain. 

A  member  of  another  large  firm  in  New  York  City  said: 

We  intend  going  into  South  American  export  trade.  South  America  Is  coming  to 
the  United  States  for  clothing.  American  manufacturers  have  regarded  South  Amer- 
ica as  a  dumping  ground  for  any  of  their  old  merchandise,  with  the  idea  that  if  the 
goods  were  taken,  well  and  good,  and  if  they  were  not  taken  it  did  not  make  any  differ- 
ence.   They  never  really  cared  for  the  traide. 


'i      -■< 


FOREIGN   TRADE. 


279 


The  president  of  another  large  clothing-manufacturing  company 
in  New  York  City  made  the  following  statement : 

We  have  not  done  enough  foreign  trade  to  say  whether  it  is  profitable  or  not.  To 
some  extent  we  have  endeavored  to  establish  foreign  trade  by  sending  salesmen  to 
South  America  and  the  West  Indies.  The  results  have  not  been  worth  considering, 
as  the  class  of  ^oods  that  we  manufacture  is  too  high  for  the  retail  trade  wben  landed 
in  most  countries  with  duties  added.  We  understand  that  there  is  a  limited  foreign 
demand,  mostly  from  South  America,  but  not  in  our  grade  of  goods. 

Goods  for  export  sold  by  us  have  usually  been  sold  through  export  agents,  to  whom 
we  have  paid  commissions.  Export  agents  with  whom  we  have  done  business  have 
usually  guaranteed  payments. 

In  our  opinion  foreign  trade  has  not  grown  faster  because  the  representatives  of 
American  factories  have  not  been  natives  of  the  countries  in  which  they  have  traveled 
and  have  not  taken  the  foreign  business  seriously  enough,  nor  have  they  been,  in  our 
experience,  good  enough  salesmen. 

Some  manufactm-ers  who  were  interviewed  expressed  the  belief 
that  a  sale  for  two-piece  suits  could  be  found  in  Central  and  South 
American  countries.  Under  a  section  of  this  chapter  headed  '^Re- 
ports from  American  Consuls, "  p.  287,  will  be  found  communications 
from  representatives  of  the  United  States  in  other  countries  explain- 
ing opportunities  for  establishing  or  extending  trade  in  men's  clothing 
in  those  countries. 

The  following  table  shows  the  value  of  the  woolen  wearing  apparel 
pf  all  kinds  made  in  the  United  States  and  exported  to  the  various 
countries  of  the  world  during  the  fiscal  years  ended  June  30,  1908  to 
1915: 

Table  55.— Domestic  Exports  op  Woolen  Wearing  Apparel,  by  Countries, 
During  the  Years  Ended  June  30,  1908  to  1915. 


Countries. 


EXJBOPK. 


Austria-Hungary 

Azores,  and  Madeira  Is. 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Gibraltar 

Greece 

Italy 

Netherlands 

Norway... 

Portugal 

Russia  in  Europe 

Serbia,     Montenegro, 

Albania 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Turkey  in  Europe 

United  Kingdom: 

England 

Scotland 

Ireland 


and 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


Bermuda 

British  Honduras 

Canada 

Ontral  American  States: 

Costa  Rica 

Guatemala 

Honduras 

Nicaragua 

Panama 

Salvador 

Mexico 

Miquelon.  Langley,  etc 

Newfoundland  and  Labrador 


1908 


tI80 


93 
100 


2,485 

16,240 

400 


3,115 
710 
612 


178 


288 
180 


90 


39,203 


1,395 

2,254 

923,815 

18,382 

5,306 

2,712 

43,631 

1,098 

363,910 

715 

5,234 


1909 


f616 

1,239 

40 

100 


167 
3,657 


2,222 


315 

18 

175 


596 


24,795 

1,144 

215 


2440 

3,672 

825,810 

4,253 

8,324 

3,195 

2,898 

58,372 

2,336 

288,042 

100 

4,169 


1910 


1896 

190 

510 

47 


3,903 

9,739 


250 
156 


375 


50 

18,715 

691 

50 


1  452 

812 
997,981 

2,857 
2,122 
1,062 


1911 


t2,062 


732 


14,982 
2,685 


45 
185 


1912 


f225 

678 

2,536 

118 


2,648 
263 


10 


20,859 
698 


160 

620 
937,410 


2,800 
6,520 
1,919 
2,102 
9,141 
1,455 
278,802 
151 
9,8601 


1201 

17,081 
785 


826 
3,746 
1,105,572 


5,137 

10,351 

6,470 

4,492 

36,830 

2,439 

299,614 

S9 

7,486 


1913 


1914 


t453 
236 
2,375 
2,258 
95 
2,871 
9,907 


3,980 

130 

561 

12 

30 


275 
663 


11,041 

132,672 
993 


1,826 

4,013 

1,456,950 

2,499 
31,889 

6,638 

4,834 
83,913 

1,582 
402,803 


$3,882 
255 
909 


105 
15,140 
12,945 


5,235,029 
50 


4,741 
792 
820 
289 
421 


40 

1,239 

25 

57,881 

50,639 
1,190 


1915 


SI,  600 


168.308 
6,570 


9,113 

4,639 

43,320 

620 

49 

770 

8,125 

60 

115 


2,187 

1,631,376 

3,278 

359 


1,639     402 

5, 162    3, 142 

1,389,1261,107,243 


17,607 


2,031 

22,985 

13,096 

5,344 

65,527 

1,796 

227,709 

119 

3,633 


649 

11,223 

15,332 

2,852 

27,717 

50 

350,385 

425 

3,835 


\u 


Il 


11 


280  men's  faotoby-made  clothing  industry. 

Table  55  —Domestic  Exports  of  Woolen  Wearing  Apparel,  by  Countries, 
During  the  Years  Ended  June  30,  1908  to  1915— Continued. 


Countries. 


1908 


1909 


1910 


NOSTH  AMEBICA— COntd. 

West  Indies: 

British- 
Barbados 

Jamaica 

Trinidad  and  Tobago. 
Other  British 

Cuba 

Danish 

Dutch 

French 

Haiti 

Santo  Domingo 


13,364 

71,992 

71 

HI 


SOUTH  AMESICA 


Argentina 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Chile 

Colombia 

Ecuador 

Guiana: 

British 

Dutch 

Paraguay 

Peru 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 


tl,U8 

106,688 
194 


12,043 

36,722 

302 

73 


1911 


1,677 
3,840 


69,371 


ASIA. 


China 

China,  leased  territ(v>-: 


British. 


French 

Chosen  (Korea) 

East  Indies: 

British- 
British  India 

Straits  Settlements.. 

Hongkong 

Japan 

Russia  in  Asia 

Siam 

Turkey  in  Asia 


864 

743 

995 

2,263 

30 
118 


372 

3,618 


29,461 
360 
343 


6631 
13 


10 


17 
3,368 


37,960 


3,920 


2,547 
137 


$491 

673 

933 

19,565 

37 


1912 


30 
63 


J,  507 

194 

73 

36 

336 

98 


$371 

1,948 

1,018 

1,733 

33,209 

7 

12 


1913 


$776 

8,706 

665 

4,113 

60,793 


1914 


734 
1,437 
3,845 


828 


1S7 


8M 

96 

1,354 

3,304 

3,500 


OCEANU. 

British: 

Australia  and  Tasmania. 

New  Zealand 

Other  British 

French.... ■ 

Philippine  Islands 


168 
150 
371 


3,413 


334 


M 


445 
*3,'907 

3,768 


384 


115 


183 
720 
384 


1,553 


897 

8 


513 

1,644 

686 

14 


9,929 
3,196 


86,385 


AnuCA. 


Belgian  K(»igo 

British  Africa: 

West 

DOtitn  «••*•••••■•••••••••• 

Canaiy  Islands ,. 

French  Africa 

German  Africa 

Liberia 

Portuguese  Africa 

Turkey  in  Africa:  Egypt 


130 

7,710 

90 


13 
'i,'696 


13,643 

487 

3 


14,096 


7,006 

3,965 

1,005 

2 


Total 

KKCAirrULATlOll. 


1,717,833 


Europe 

North  America. 
South  America. 

Asia 

Oceania 

Africa 


3,613 


55 

335 
30 


1,722 

832 

21 


17,805 


53 
460 
152 


642 
3,680 


104,784 

3,932 

67 

18,906 

eo 

35 

319 


337 


109 
3,150 


120,647 

1,224 

2,112 

359 

412 

68 


1915 


1,154 


6,175 


90 


143 
1,3( 
1,161 

683 

785 


3,498 


2,109 
1,120 


5S 


44,993 


17,595 

2,101 

558 

130 


6,115 

363 

34 


35,496 


535 

382 

145 

1,363 

3,333 


5,162 
181 


172 


1,430,135 


63,931 
1, 458, 108 
80,390 

7,948 
S8,415 

9,041 


1,555,184 


35,399 

1,316,611 

31,536 

28,158 
2,922 


286 
15,179 


8,236 


300 
"*87 


1,450,475 


34,973 
1,  441, 101 
36,916 
16,245 
20,380 
6,570 


3,264 


24,663 

8,330 

44 


81,643 


45 


$317 

607 

65 

3,419 

30,437 

1,811 

38 

320 

3,255 

3,615 


93,160 

316 

1,212 

3,385 

935 

94 

90 

80 

1,330 

1,993 

1.384 

996 


4,318 
473 


$346 

944 

79 

1,496 

13,336 

543 


37 

31 

1,073 


39,323 
1,680 
1,884 

15,076 

1,006 

384 

30 


773 


7 
1,115 


6,533 


89 
755 
335 


1,743,022 


7,130 


652 

84 


53,446 


35,363 

1,585 

3 

194 

is,  773 


718 

3 

86 

514 
371,679 


1,310 


13,433 

771 

380 

79 

'93,'336 


103 
10,383 


633 
246 


2, 460, 326  2, 148, 236  9, 108, 900 


43,368 
1,272,699 
68,411 
3,123 
48,222 
15,752 


34,464 
1,513,533 
138,351 
26,649 
41,900 
8,226 


2, 


168,552 

078,101 

128,883 

12,309 

64,570 

7,911 


165 
10,227 

■"653 


559 


1, 


151,313 

770,730 

104,935 

60,187 

49,815 

11,365 


7,115,556 
1,541,008 
52,717 
281,326 
106,788 
11,604 


":f 


/ 


K 


.<-%. 


FOREIGN    TRADE. 


281 


Considering  the  exports  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1914,  a 
month  before  the  war  began  in  Europe,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  total 
domestic  exports  of  woolen  wearing  apparel  amounted  to  $2,148,235. 
Of  this  amount,  the  exports  to  countries  in  North  America  amounted 
to  $1,770,730.  Of  the  woolen  wearing  apparel  exported  to  South 
America,  $104,925,  Argentina  took  the  largest  share,  $93,160. 

The  exports  of  woolen  wearing  apparel  amounted  to  $1,717,833 
during  the  fiscal  year  1908,  and  to  $2,148,235  during  the  fiscal  year 
1914,  an  increase  of  $430,402,  or  25.05  per  cent,  in  six  years.  It  will 
be  noticed,  however,  that  the  increase  was  not  imif orm  from  year  to 

year. 

The  following  table  shows  the  value  of  the  cotton  wearing  apparel 
of  all  kinds,  except  corsets,  hosiery,  and  other  knit  goods,  made  in  the 
United  States  and  exported  to  the  various  countries  of  the  world 
during  the  fiscal  years  ended  June  30,  1908  to  1915: 

Table  56.— Value  op  Domestic  Exports  op  Cotton  Wearing  Apparel  (Not 
Including  Corsets,  Hosiery,  and  Other  Knit  Goods)  from  the  United 
States  During  the  Fiscal  Years  Ended  June  30,  1908,  to  IQIS. 


Countries. 


EUBOFS 


Austria-Hungary 

Azores  and  Madeira  Is. 

Belgium 

Bulgaria 

Denmark 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Gibraltar 

Greece 

Italy 

Malta,  Gozo,  etc 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Portugal 

Roumania 

Russia  in  Europe 

Serbia,     Montenegro, 
Albania 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Turkey  in  Europe 

Umited  Kingdom- 
England 

Scotland 

Iredand 


1908 


1909 


1910 


$287 

422 

4,800 


2,589 


5,116 
88,903 


and 


9,639 


18,607 

2,127 

202 


$913 


662 


1,915 


$1,728 

268 

2,785 


5,236 


2,887 
114,022 


626 
4,590 


•21 


22,290 

853 

39 


NOBTH  AMERICA. 


Bermuda 

British  Honduras 

Canada 

Central  Anu^can  States: 

Costa  Rica 

Guatemala 

Honduras 

Nicaragua 

Panama 

Salvador 

Miquelon.  Langley,  etc 

Newfoundland  and  Labrador 
West  Indies: 
British- 
Barbados 

Jamaica 

Trinidad  and  Tobago. . 

Other  British 

Cuba 

Danish 


1,003 
2,440 
3,544 
1,060 


371,559 


12,495 

36,036 

764,299 

20,303 

20,669 

40,9591 

33,527 

310,271 

2,923 

376,742 

339 

27,123 


79,514 

247,940 
2,693 


25 

870 
2,062 


7,664 
23,163 


1911 


1912 


$3,691 

179 

11,615 


6,698 


$3,050 

105 

35,617 


1913 


$5,368 

14 

34,999 


429 
11,170 


34,835 
2,324 

877 


9,259 
73,036 


5,728 

168 

11,796 

68,979 


1914 


1915 


737 

8,005 

70 

33,859 

3,470 

185 


382, 
10,946 


41,068 

6,321 

173 


25 


263,436 

5,616 

226 


15,432 

16,665 

931,831 

10,734 

13,403 

30,296 

27,394 

359,342 

950 

232,619 

34 

34,838 


51,151 

234,910 
5,550l 


276 
1,015 
4,105 

132 

303,621 
9,673 
1,586 


21,414 
31,326 
1,540,365 

30,675 

ll,415i 

31,83S 

32,204 

521,473 

1,527 

274,709 

444 

50,467 


62 
1,922 

8.707, 
1,166 


981 
3,900 
1,112 
3,884 


402,575  593,838 

12,998,   10,667 

194 


7,779 

140 

9,954 

13,397 

20 

735 

9,183 


$8,665    $1,530 

188 

27,450   116,365 
200 
4,251 


12,915 


29,237,  1,116,852 
7,828      403 

'      I 


3,984 
2,477 

236 
24 

204 


510 
2,581 
2,889 
6,260 

203,100 
19,005 


l,610i        15,619 
1,512  3,765 

400 

1,468 5,'75i 

755     2,942 
472    3,542 


20 


24,365   36,104 
38, 733   29, 444 
1,881,262  2,596,126 


105,899 

309,742 
7,165 


40,471 

31,952 

72,297 

57,311 

428,489 

4,328 

301,901 

480 

88,791 


7,719 
80,400 
27,656 
28,326 
376,100 
10,167 


991 
1,235 
1,433 

102,224 
18,154 


20,134   20,684 
30, 124   56, 185 
2,569,381|2,489,435 


50,005 

30,413 

63,636 

64,926 

584,608 

3,357 

340,461 

549 

88,077 


7,574 

116,925 

29,093 

32,016 

463,207 

16,951 


35,751 

36,434 

98,326 

91, 133 

498,673 

5,873 

363,787 

308 

97,002 


4,843 

74,726 

20,752 

30,435 

535,588^ 

8,847' 


25,301 

38,488 

146,996 

110,413 

415,035 

3,319 

450,503 

611 

128,994 


7,625 

106,986 

40,020 

37,379 

592,559 

8,156 


367 

4,930 

2,803 

8,237 

304 

500 

7,450,951 

167,096 

814 


19,714 

37,482 

2,390,317 

20,418 

23,198 

115,761 

35,120 

324,368 

1,617 

1,105,494 

479 

62,580 


6,345 

67,403 

36,250 

30,543 

684,471 

3,186 


»h 


t 

I 


» I 


282 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 


Table  56.— Value  op  Domestic  Exports  of  Cotton  Wearing  Apparel  (Not 
Including  Corsets,  Hosiery,  and  Other  Knit  Goods)  from  the  United 
States  During  the  Fiscal  Years  Ended  June  30,  1908,  to  1915.— Contd. 


Countries. 


NORTH   AMERICA— contd 

West  Indies— Continued. 

Dutch 

French 

Haiti 

Santo  Domingo 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


Argentina. 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Chile 

Colombia . . 
Ecuador . . 
Guiana: 

British. . 

Dutch . . 

French. . 
Paraguay . 

Peru 

Uruguay . . 
Venezuela. 


1908 


18,382 

26A 

2,017 

21,876 


2,400 

2,135 
14,588 

3,465 
26,906 

8,771 

2,982 

2,673 

176 


1909 


1910 


ASIA. 


Aden 

China 

China,  leased  territwy: 

British 

GernMn 

Japanese 

Chosen  ( Korea) 

East  Indies: 

British- 
British  India 

Straits  Settlements . . . 
Other  British 

Dutch 

H(mgkong 

Japan 

Persia 

Russia  in  Asia 

Siam 

Turkey  in  Asia 


OCEANIA. 

British: 

Australia  and  Tasmania. . 

New  Zealand 

Other  British 

French 

German 

Philippine  Islands 


18,940 
7,307 
2,584 


6,439 


552 


3,124 
50 


$3,318 

542 

3,379 

19,962 


7,122 
881 
9,769 
3,001 
21,977 
3,995 

1,400 
2,181 


1911 


17,508 

490 

4,199 

19,471 


14,817 
2,270 

60,751 
4,324 

30,819 
7,898 

2,554 
1,798 


4,609 

1,561 

521 


22,349 


1,894 
4,553 
7,929 


4,443 
490 


AFRICA. 


Bel^an  Ecmgo 

British  Africa: 

West .•: 

South 

East 

Canary  Islands 

French  Africa 

German  Africa 

Liberia 

Morocco 

POTtuguese  Africa 

Spanish  Africa 

Turkey  in  Africa:  Egypt. 


Total. 


178,086 

98,027 

2,799 

5,981 

1,124 

136,506 


2,567 


1,765 
600 
70 
1,444 
3,214 
5,828 


7,387 
3,916 
4,052 


22,197 


12 

56 

463 


1,930 
539 


S6,935 
1,309 
6,539 

23,067 


42,837 

7,041 

83,431 

7,326 
28,392 
12,940 

2,137 

2,756 

27 


1912 


1913 


18,407 

11,643 

6,495 


13,692 


3,053 
3,856 
8,290 


869 

142,319 

70 

3,000 

179 

81 

2,048 


2,749 
""897 


3,218,728 


RECAPITULATION. 


Europe 

North  America. 
South  America. 

Asia 

Oceania 

Africa 


512,319 

2,008,374 

92,927 

30,373 

422,523 

152. 212 


1,028 

9 

1,400 


217,460 

86,967 

1,969 

6,648 

1,728 

288,707 


351 

• 

66 
110,694 
145 
165 
338 
506 
1,000 


2,725 

"""eos 


2,042 

139 

1,941 


2»4,483 

86,494 
2,386 

11,284 

1,978 

420,737 


131 

996 
144,290 
122 
160 
462 
522 
1,789 


5,700 

45 

1,034 


3,230,342  4,550,921 


421,082 

1,992,250 

57,017 

40,274 

603,499 

116,270 


410,894 
3,002,331 
130,566 
44,518 
807,361 
155,251 


396 
1,400 


3,672 

472 

62 

3,326 

14,718 

7,975 

10 

3,660 

608 

3,092 


370,476 

130,253 

8,602 

20,088 

1,613 

387,848 


lis 

286 

215,421 

164 


S13,609 
1,722 

16,437 
56,795 


77,411 
6,156 
80,911 
19,538 
36,767 
12,868 

1,096 

3,093 

196 

472 

25,104 

11,475 

9,411 


$8,107 

808 

57,644 

61,547 


120,700 
5,619 

134,150 
31,215 
28,291 
13,628 

1,677 
1,617 


1914 


1916 


31,856 


50 

30 

1,840 


4,600 
905 
468 

4,101 
20,730 

8,502 


160 

34,678 

20,205 

2,645 


10 
50,739 


529 
'3,'444 
*6,'985 

'i,"6i2 


2,134 

997 

6,976 


417,320 
118,579 

4,274 
14,710 

2,924 
513,117 


aoo 

351 

190,392 

41 


109 

225 

1,905 


41 
2,184 


21,567 

1,353 

1,292 

3,246 

12,334 

11,693 


$11,858 

472 

4,747 

34,250 


50,321 
23,614 
61,843 
37,431 
20,758 
21,138 

1,077 

2,068 
16 

1,221 
40,975 
10,573 

7,020 


30 
26,324 

337 


$13,985 

2,001 
29,564 


36,432 
3,706 
20,915 
36,751 
23,073 
26,491 

1,966 

2,407 

30 


1,902 
1,209 
6,064 


76,675 

35,129 

3,406 

17,780 

1,786 

419,469 


50 

646 

163,441 

86 


832 


22,253 

2,405 

1,453 

1,699 

26,061 

12,905 


23,486 
7,092 
8,185 


14.350 


5,305 

605 

6,518 


98,679 
34,951 

4,507 
34,733 

3,406 
384,206 


160 

38 

820 


10,023 
143 
905 


5,538,303  7,119,580 


578,428 
3,538,588 
222,522 
52,992 
918,830 
226,943 


798,740 
4,640,035 

284,399 

82,188 

1,100,924 

213,294 


10,505 
"1*762 


269 

93,277 

29 

609 


25 
256 


13,014 

1,052 

123 

934 

6,232 

6,421 


3,106 

266 

50 


76,776 

41,700 

3,190 

16,150 

1,338 

378,974 


553 
978 


11,107 


6,211,724  5,999,887 


322,859 
4,640,223 
394, 375 
122,633 
564,147 
177,487 


216,557 
4,730,025 
277,954 
106,747 
560,482 
106.122 


737 

60,541 

29 

100 

168 

117 

342 

11 

8,651 


1,600 


14,743,148 


8,907,222 

5,011,142 

190,634 

44,«<27 

517, 127 

72,296 


T 


ft- 


'--k^ 


\  ' 


FOREIGN   TRADE. 


283 


Considering  the  exports  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1914,  it 
will  be  noted  that  Canada  is  by  far  the  most  important  market  for 
cotton  wearing  apparel.  Such  exports  to  that  country  m  the  fiscal 
year  1914  amounted  to  $2,489,435,  or  41.49  per  cent  of  the  total. 
Trade  with  Canada  has  grown  rapidly,  havmg  mcreased  more  than 
threefold  from  1908  to  1914.  Cuba,  Mexico,  Panama,  and  the  Fhil- 
ippme  Islands,  m  the  order  named,  are  the  other  important  markets. 

From  1908  to  1914  the  increase  of  such  exports  to  all  North  Amen- 
can  countries  was  135.52  per  cent;  to  all  South  Amencan  countries, 
199.11  per  cent;  to  all  Asiatic  countries,  250.34  per  cent;  to  Oceania, 
32.65  per  cent.  Such  exports  to  all  countries  in  Europe  decreased 
57.73  per  cent,  and  those  to  all  coimtries  in  Africa  decreased  28.97 

per  cent.  ,.      .  ,         ,         .  ., 

The  following  table  shows,  by  customs  districts,  the  value  of  tUe 
domestic  exports  durmg  the  fiscal  years  1914  and  1915,  of  woolen 
wearmg  apparel  and  of  cotton  wearing  apparel,  not  mcluding  corsets 
or  knit  goods : 

Tablb  57.— Value  op  Domestic  Exports  op  Woolen  Wearing  Apparel,  and 
OP  Cotton  Wearing  Apparel,  Other  Than  Knit  Goods  and  Corsets,  by 
Customs  Districts,  Fiscal  Years  op  1914  and  1915. 


Customs  districts. 


Woolen. 


1914 


Maine  and  New  Hampshire . 

Massachusetts 

New  York 

New  Orleans 

Arizona 

El  Paso 

San  Francisco 

Washington 

Buffalo 

Dakota 

Duluth  and  Superior 

Vermont 

Mk^h^gft" 

St.  Lawrence 

All  other  disU-icts 


$37,572 
21,977 

528,936 
26,277 
61,211 

105,859 

(«) 

179,076 
438,642 
270,217 

68,939 
6  71,254 

59,615 
236,052 

53,608 


1915 


Cotton. 


1914 


1915 


Total. 


2,148,235 


132,086 

208,992 

7,305,268 

29,107 

31,078 

254,721 

(fl) 

126, 827 

306, 162 

165,439 

86,533 

31,397 

46, 498 

308, 124 

176,668 


(«) 

$69, 981 

2,307,298 

369,973 

76,710 
255,228 
349, 717 
121,786 
986, 712 
478,042 

57,725 
180,711 
127,990 
478,277 
139,737 


9,108,900      5,999,887 


$73,127 

10,652,862 

221,230 

108,979 

665,738 

375,827 

101,393 

1,066,580 

270,494 

121,860 

123,934 

93,365 

565,617 

302,133 


14,743,148 


a  Included  in  "All  othw  districts." 


»  Weston  Vermont  only. 


IMPOSTS    INTO    OUTLYING    TESBITOBIES    AND    FOBEIGN    AMERICAN 

COUITTBIES. 

The  value  of  the  imports  of  men's  and  boys'  clothing  into  foreign 
countries  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  and  into  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii, 
and  the  PhiUppine  Islands  is  shown  below.  The  statistics  are  as 
nearly  complete  as  can  be  ob tamed  from  the  official  reports  of  the 
various  coimtries.  The  classification  in  each  case  is  that  of  the 
country  for  which  the  data  are  given.  In  the  case  of  many  coiin- 
tries  the  imports  of  men's  and  boys'  clothing  are  not  specifically 
reported,  but  are  included  under  the  headings  of  "Clothing"  or 
"Wearing  apparel"  and  are  so  shown  here. 

Statistics  of  the  imports  of  the  various  kinds  of  wearing  apparel, 
80  far  as  they  are  specified  in  the  official  reports  of  the  coimtries 
mentioned  below,  appear  more  fuUy  in  a  report  on  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction of  women's  musHn  underwear,  previously  issued  by  the 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce. 


ii 

it 


284 


men's  factoey-made  clothing  industry. 


ARGENTTNA.o 


*A1I  other  wearing  apparel,"  exclndinc 
underwear,  hosiery,  shirts,  neckties, 
corsets,  hats,  gloves,  ponchas,  edgings 
and  trimmings  (passementerie),  hand- 
kerchiefs: 

Cotton 11,290.626 

Wool 1,214,732 

Wool  mixed 47,869 

Silk 53S,423 

Silk  mixed 3,^784 

Linen 145,237 

Other  fibers  and  mixed  fibers 71, 404 

Total 3,341.075 

BAHAMAS.^ 

Cotton,  woolen,  linen,  and  silk  wearing 
apparel 275, 656 

BABBADO!).^ 

Wearing  apparel,  except  haberdashery 
andheadwear 121,006 

Ctothing 210,491 

BOUVlA.ft 

Clothing,  men's 64,624 

"Other  articles  of  clothing,"  except 
woman's  clothing,  all  hat"?,  gloves,  knit- 
ted articles,  laces,  trimmings 297, 966 

Total 362,500 

BBAZIT..fr 

Wearing  apparel,  except  hosiery,  neck- 
ties, laces,  etc.  (passementerie): 

Cotton 1,143,599 

Wool 98,617 

Linen 102,211 

Silk 43,691 

Total 1,388,118 

BRITISH  0U1ANA.6 

Clothing,  ready-made 79,810 

Linen,  cotton,  and  woolen  manufactures, 
except  haberdashery  and  headwear 861, 120 

Total 940,930 

BBITISH  HONDUBA?*.* 


Clothing,  except  haberdashery  and  head- 
wear 


67,106 


CANADA,  f 

"Other  clothing  not  otherwise  provided 
for,"  except  hosiery,  underwear,  shirts, 
blouse-s,  shirtwaists,  corsets,  collars  ana 
cuffs,  gloves,  headwear,  handkerchiefs, 
knitted  gooos.  laces  (passementerie): 

Cotton 2,965,342 

Wool 2,189,558 

Silk 1,102,100 

Linen 21,265 

Waterproof  clothing,  various  materials...  1,684,564 

Total 7,962.8?9 

CHILE.a 

Clothing,  men's  and  boys': 

Cotton 82,312 

Wool 208,994 

Silk 2,680 

o  Calendar  year  1913. 
ft  Calendar  year  1912. 
c  Fiscal  year  ended  Mar.  31, 1914. 


CHiLB— contincwd. 

Clothing,  men's  and  boys'— Continued. 

Cotton  and  silk  mixed tl,fl37 

Flax,  cut  but  not  made 515 

Wool,  cut  but  not  made 30,860 

Wool  and  silk  mixed,  cut  but  not 

made 12,968 

Cotton,  cut  out,  of  trkjot 9,783 

Clothing,  oiled  or  waterproofed: 

Cotton 22,604 

Wool 4,306 

Wool,  cut  but  not  made 1,638 

Wool  overalls,  muffltfs,  ponchas 31, 317 


Total 409,920 

COSTA  RICA. 6 

Clothing,  except  hosiery,  shirts,  collars 
and  cuiTs,  corsets,  gloves,  and  headwear: 

Cotton 74,923 

Wool.... 16,210 

Silk 8,684 

Linen 91 


Total. 


98,908 


CUBA.4 


Clothing,  except  hats  and  laces,  etc.  (pas- 
sementerie): 

Cotton 662,104 

Wool 176,083 

Sflk 204,675 

Other  fibers 95,284 


Total 1,138,146 

DUTCH  GUIAKA.C 

Ready-made  clothes 79,041 

ECUADOR.' 


Clothing: 

Cotton 

Wool 

Silk 

Linen 

Other  fibers 

Clothing,  with  or  without  silk  lining. 


25,187 

13,317 

6,377 

496 

1,866 

7,567 


Total. 


64,800 


VAUaAKD  ISLANDS.* 

Wearing  apparel 82,101 

fEBNCH  GUIANA,  ft 

Clothing,  ready-made,  men's 23, 956 

Rubber  clothing 969 


Total. 


24,925 


OBANADA.ft 

Wearing  apparel,  except  haberdashery 
andheadwear 28,610 


QUADELOUFE.ft 

Clothlns  and  haberdasher  v 

16.800 

OUATEllALA.ft 

Readv-made  clothing: 

Cotton 

80,595 

Woolen 

24,854 

Sflk 

62,973 

Total 108,422 


d  Fiscal  year  ended  June  30, 1914. 

«  Calendar  year  1911 . 

/  Fiscal  year  ended  June,  30, 1915. 


f 


\[ 


r< 


FOREIGN   TRADE. 


285 


HAlTAn.a 


From  the  Unitwi  States: 

Cotton  wearing  apparel ^n'\nk 

Woolen  wearing  apparel 40,i/o 

From  other  countries:  _ 

Cotton  wearing  apparel. i'^n 

Woolen  wearing  apparel ^»^i" 

Silk  wearing  apparel •  4^,w» 

All  other  wearing  apparel,  except 
handkerchiefs,headwear,and  passe- 


PHiLiPPmE  ISLANDS— continued. 


menterie 
Total. 


From  the  United  States— Continued. 
Woolen  clothing  and  other  wearmg 

apparel :--    W49.230 

Silk   clothing    and    other    wearmg 

apparel ,  except  knit  goods 41,  w* 

From  other  countries: 

Coats ,  pants ,  and  vests  of  cotton. ....  oio 

Other  clothing  and  men's  wearmg 
apparel,  except  shirts,  collars  and 


774.645 


JAMAICA.ft 


Wearing  apparel,  except  haberdashery, 
headwear,  hosiery,  and  other  cotton 
manufactures ^^*'^'^ 

MARTINIQUE,  ft 

Clothing  and  haberdashery . .  -^. . .  ...•■.       22, 320 

Clothing,not  specified, except  knit  goods, 
corsets,  head  and  neck-wear,  handker- 
chiefs,  and  passementerie °>°^ 

Total 28,918 

MEXICO.« 

Ready-made   clothing,  not  specifically 

°»Sl{Sr*'  203,035 

??i5SP .  37  083 

Silk',  mixed  with  other  materials 18, 187 

Artlficialsilk ^ 

^Sr:::;:::::::::::::::::::::::::_^ 

Total 573,192 

NE-WTOUNDLAND.ft 

Clothing  (includes  collars  and  cufts) ^'  ^ 

OUed  clothing •• ^4,347 

Total 397,955 

NICARAGUA.' 

Clothing  and  wearing  apparel: 

Cotton 180.660 

Wool 63,535 

Silk 48,990 

Total 303,185 

PANAMA.ft 


Ready-made  clothing 403,999 

PARAQUAT.* 

Ready-made  clothing 135,313 

PERU.* 

Clothing.various.  except  hosiery  .under- 
wear. Shirts,  collars,  hats,  shawls,  lace, 
handkerchiefs 84,682 


PHIUPPINE  ISLANDS,  e 

From  the  United  States: 

Coats,  pants,  and  vests  of  cotton 

Other  cotton  clothing  and  men's 
wearing  apparel,  except  shirts,  col- 
lars and  cuffs,  hosiery,  underwear. 


cu§s,  hosiery,  underwear 54,052 

Woolen  clothing  and  other  wearmg 

apparel ,•       1^'*"^ 

Silk  clothing  and  wearing  apparel, 

except  knit  goods *°'^*°* 

Total *62,584 

PORTO  RICO./ 

From  the  United  States: 

Cotton  wearing  apparel,  except  knit 

goods 634,195 

Wool  wearing  apparel oS'qSS 

Silk,  manufactures  of /•/«,*«) 

From  other  countries: 

Cotton  wearing  apparel,  includmg 

hosiery  and  knit  goods ^.^^ 

Wool  wearing  apparel ^V}SA 

Silk  wearing  apparel ^'"^ 

Total 974,946 

ST.  VINCENT.  l> 

Wearing  apparel,  except  haberdashery 
andheadwear lu^^w 

ST.  PIERRE  AND  MIQUELON.* 


Clothing  and  haberdashery .............       19, 641 

Clothing,  not  specified,  except  knit  goods, 
underwear,  headwear,  corsets,  passe- 
menterie *'"°* 


Total 20,709 

TRINIDAD  AND  TOBAGO,  ft 


Wearing   apparel,   except   knit   goods, 
hosiery,     gloves,     headwear,     haber- 


dashery. 


234,040 


1,280 


47,997 


71,901 


TURKS  AND  CAICOS  ISLANDS,  ft 

Wearing  apparel,  except  haberdashery 
and  headwear _ 

URUGUAY.* 


Clothing,  ready-made,  men's  and  boys': 

Cotton 21,414 

Wool  and  principally  wool ^'  ?1I 

Linen • ^ 

Total 48,211 

ven£2uela.  d 

Readv-made  clothing -.  3»  118 

Wearing  apparel,  except  underwear,  col- 
lars   and    cuffs,    hosiery,    headwear, 

shawls,corsets,suspenders,  and  garters.  1, 804 


Total. 


a  Fiscal  year  ended  June  30, 1915. 
ft  Calen(Ur  year  1912. 
•  Calendar  year  1914. 


d  Calendar  year  1913. 
«  Calendar  year  1911. 
/  Fiscal  year  ended  June  30, 1915. 


4,922 


i 


1 


i    I 


ii  I 


286 


men's  factory-made  clothing  industry. 
suggestions  fob  incbeasing  fobsign  tbads. 


t 


No  serious  organized  efforts  have  hitherto  been  made  by  American 
manufacturers  of  men's  clothing  to  place  their  products  in  foreign 
markets,  and  with  few  exceptions  such  business  as  they  have  obtained 
has  come  largely  through  export  houses.  It  is  claimed  by  some  of  the 
manufacturers  that  export  houses  frequently  do  not  give  active  atten- 
tion to  the  selUng  of  American  clothmg  abroad,  because  other  lines, 
such  as  automobiles,  hardware,  and  machinery,  offer  better  returns 
and  do  not  require  the  effort  and  technical  knowledge  that  are  neces- 
sa^  in  attempting  to  introduce  clothing. 

There  is  a  rather  widespread  ignorance  among  manufacturers  as 
to  the  requirements  of  the  foreign  markets  and  the  proper  methods 
to  be  adopted  in  building  up  an  export  trade.  An  active  campaign 
of  inquiry  and  study  must  be  inaugurated  before  definite  results 
can  be  expected.  The  most  effective  plan  would  be  for  the  manu- 
facturers, individually  or  collectively,  to  send  their  own  representa- 
tives into  the  foreign  fields  to  stucfy  the  conditions  and  the  tastes 
of  the  people  in  the  matter  of  ready-made  clothing,  show  their  sam- 
ples, and  estabUsh  their  own  agents  in  the  principal  countries,  who 
could  look  after  the  business  when  their  representatives  had  returned 

from  the  field. 

Manufacturers  who  are  unable  or  unwiUing  to  adopt  this  policy 
should  avail  themselves  of  the  faciUties  which  the  Bureau  of  Foreign 
and  Domestic  Commerce  at  Washington  and  the  American  consular 
service  provide  for  assisting  them  in  securing  export  trade.  In  the 
''Trade  Opportunities''  pubhshed  in  the  Commerce  Reports,  issued 
daily  by  the  Bureau,there  are  frequently  printed  inquiries  from  abroad 
for  the  names  of  American  manufacturers  and  exporters  of  clothing, 
and  if  these  opportunities  are  actively  followed  up  connections  may  be 
made  with  importers  abroad  which  may  result  in  good  sales.  Ameri- 
can consuls  can  furnish  specific  information  in  regard  to  the  possi- 
biUties  for  trade  in  certain  markets.  They  can  also  procure  samples 
showing  the  particular  kinds  of  goods  which  are  in  demand. 

Manufacturers  who  seriously  undertake  the  work  of  selling  their 
products  abroad  should  bear  in  mind  the  suggestions  which  always 
apply  in  the  development  of  export  trade,  namely,  to  write  their 
letters  and  prepare  catalogues  in  a  language  which  the  foreigner  under- 
stands, to  quote  prices  in  a  currency  with  which  he  is  famihar,  to 
furnish  c.  i.  f .  (cost,  insiu-ance,  and  freight)  quotations  as  far  as  possi- 
ble, to  pack  goods  properly,  to  fill  orders  promptly  and  carefullv,  to 
extend  a  reasonable  amount  of  credit  where  the  standing  of  the 
importer  justifies  it,  and  to  keep  in  constant  touch  with  the  market 
through  representatives  or  by  correspondence.  An  active  campaign 
which  incorporates  these  suggestions,  backed  by  a  thorough  studv  of 
the  foreign  markets  and  their  requirements,  will  undoubtedly  result  in 
a  substantial  increase  in  exports  of  men's  clothing.  . 

A  monograph  on  South  America  as  an  Export  Field «  is  intended 
to  give  manufacturers  information  as  to  the  character,  extent, 
resources,  and  trade  of  South  American  countries  which  will  assist 
them  to  determine  the  most  favorable  markets  for  their  goods.  This 
monograph,  which  was  pubUshed  in  1914,  contains  216  pages,  and 

•  Special  Agents  Stf  iee  No.  81. 


FOREIGN   TRADE. 


287 


J^ir^ 


may  be  procured  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C,  at  25  cents  per  copy. 

The  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  has  recently 
issued  (as  Tariff  Series  No.  32)  a  volume  setting  forth  the  customs 
duties  on  textiles  in  all  the  South  American  countries.  The  pubhca- 
tion  covers  everything  comprehended  in  the  textile  industries  from 
the  raw  fiber,  thread,  yarn,  and  fabric,  through  all  the  ramifica- 
tions of  made-up  articles— ready-made  clothing  for  men,  women,  and 
children,  knit  goods  of  all  kinds,  embroidery,  trimmings  and  other 
fancy  articles,  carpets  and  rugs,  and  other  manufactured  articles  of 
which  textile  materials  constitute  the  whole  or  important  parts. 

The  original  customs  tariffs  of  all  foreign  countries  are  on  file  m 
the  division  of  foreign  tariffs  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic 
Commerce,  which,  in  response  to  specific  inquiries,  will  furnish  infor- 
mation concerning  the  duties  on  any  particular  product  in  any  country 
in  which  the  inquirer  may  be  immediately  interested. 

BEPOBTS  FBOM  AMEBICAN   CONSULS. 

Commerce  Reports  (formerly  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reports), 
issued  daily  by  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,** 
frequently  contain  information  in  regard  to  the  manufacture  of  men's 
clothing  in  foreign  countries,  statistics  regarding  the  imports  of 
such  goods,  statements  regarding  the  kind  of  goods  for  which  there 
is  a  demand,  and  suggestions  in  regard  to  how  trade  in  such  countries 
can  be  established  or  extended  by  American  manufacturers.  Reports 
that  have  been  published  since  the  war  in  Europe  began  indicate  that 
in  some  of  the  belligerent  countries  there  is  now  a  better  opportunity 
for  the  extension  of  American  trade  than  formerly  existed. 

BBiriSH  COLUMBIA. 

AMERICAN   CLOTHING  ADVERTISED. 
IConsul  General  David  F.  Wilbur,  Vancouver,  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  Aug.  7,  1913.] 

There  is  an  increasing  sale  for  eastern  Canadian  clothing.  In  some  cases  these 
goods  are  purchased  from  branch  houses  of  American  firms  located  in  Canada.  Some 
of  the  firms  in  the  United  States  are  represented  here,  but  are  handicapped  by  the 
35  per  cent  tariff  rate.  From  what  can  be  learned,  American  clothing  is  used  a  great 
de^as  an  advertisement  to  assist  in  selling  Canadian-made  clothing.  Little  English- 
made  clothing  is  sold  except  to  Japanese,  Chinese,  Hindus,  and  other  foreigners. 

BRITISH  HONDURAS. 

AVOID   METAL  ON   TROPICAL  CLOTHING. 

ISpecial  Agent  Ganard  Harris,  Belize.  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  Nov.  12,  1914] 

Manufacturers  of  light-weight  garments  such  as  duck,  linen,  the  "  Palm  Beach, " 
and  "  Panama  cloth"  would  do  well  to  exercise  care  in  seeing  that  clothing  designed 
for  use  in  the  Tropics  does  not  have  any  metal  about  it.  Considerable  complaint  is 
heard  that  the  small  buckles  on  the  sides  of  the  trousers,  and  the  tinned  or  japanned 
iron  catch  in  the  front  of  trousers  waistbands  rust  soon  from  the  constant  washing 
Buch  garments  necessarily  undergo.  This  discolors  the  fabric  and  makes  it  unsightly. 
Especially  is  this  the  case  in  places  near  the  sea,  as  the  salt  breeze  corrodes  the  metal 
very  quickly.  Men  in  the  Tropics  have  been  heard  to  declare  they  would  prefer  to 
buy  the  ready-made  garments  instead  of  having  clothes  made  by  tailors  but  for  the 
fact  that  metal  was  used.  Some  of  these  clothes  have  metal  buttons,  and  these  rust 
the  same  as  other  metal  pieces. 

•  For  salt  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C,  at  $2.50  per  year. 


288 


MEN  S   FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING   INDUSTRY. 


FOREIGN   TRADE. 


289 


1   , 
I 


I 

I'x: 


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I 


if  i 


The  use  of  buttons  of  bone,  porcelain,  or  similar  material  is  desirable  and  for  buckles 
it  would  seem  that  a  celluloid  or  bone  device  could  be  arranged.  It  is  believed  that 
the  absence  of  any  metal  on  the  garments  would  assist  considerably  in  their  sale. 

CHINA. 

INCREASINO  USE   OP  FOREIGN-STYLE   CLOTmNO. 

(Consul  Edwin  L,  Neville,  Antung,  Dally  CoDsular  and  Trade  Reports,  May  26, 1M4.] 

The  use  of  European-style  clothes  among  the  Chinese  is  unquestionably  growing. 
All  Chinese  officials  wear  frock  coats  and  evening  dress  on  formal  occasions.  It  18 
also  customary  for  merchants  and  other  business  men  to  keep  foreign  clothes  in  reserve. 
It  is  now  possible  to  find  tailors  in  any  city  of  importance  anywhere  in  China,  I  am 
told,  and  the  local  Chinese  tailors  are  authority  for  the  statement  that  their  business 
has  doubled  in  the  past  two  years.  Certainly  the  number  of  tailors  has  greatly 
increased  of  late  years. 

CLOTHES  MADE  AFTER  FOREIGN  FASHIONS. 
[Consul  General  Julean  H.  Arnold,  Hankow,  Commerce  Reports,  Not.  21, 1918.] 

The  considerable  decrease  in  imports  of  foreign-made  clothes  from  $44,814  in  1912 
to  $29,772  in  1913  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Chinese  have  learned  how  to  make 
clothes  after  the  foreign  fashion,  and  numerous  Chinese  tailor  shops  are  doing  a  thriv- 
ing business.  Practically  all  the  cheaper  grades  of  clothes  were  imported  from  Japan. 
Of  the  better  grades  Great  Britain  furnishes  a  large  quantity,  which  is  sold  in  the 
retail  stores  of  Uie  foreign  concessions. 

COLOMBIA. 

AMERICAN  CLOTHING  READILY  SOLD. 
[Consul  Isaac  A.  Manning,  Bananquilla,  Commerce  Reports,  May  25, 1918.] 

The  use  of  ready-made  clothing  for  men  and  children  in  Colombia  is  increasing 
rapidly  since  some  of  the  coast  cities  began  importing  from  the  United  States.  For- 
merly ready-made  clothing  was  brought  principally  from  Austria  and  Italy,  and  the 
writer  was  informed  that  American  clothing  cost  too  much  and  could  not  be  sold. 

The  first  lot  of  American  clothing  brought  into  Barranquilla,  in  light  cassimerep  ana 
suitings,  was  found  to  have  a  style  and  finish  that  made  it  sell,  and  last  year  one  of  the 
most  important  houses  brought  in  a  trial-order  stock  of  men's  wear  in  Palm  Beach 
cloth,  in  two-piece  suits.  These  sold  here  readily  at  retail  at  $10  per  suit,  and  the 
order  has  been  frequently  repeated.  Since  all  sizes  were  not  to  be  had ,  however,  the 
same  house  imported  the  cloth  in  bolt,  selling  it  at  $2  per  yard  for  double  width.  A 
two-piece  suit  requiring  3^  yards,  made  to  order  in  Barranquilla,  equal  to  the  imported 
ready-made  suit,  cost  $4  to  make,  or  a  total  of  $11.  Thus  there  is  a  fair  difference  in 
favor  of  the  ready-made  suit  from  the  United  States. 

The  trade  in  Barranquilla  holds  to  the  idea  that  it  is  impossible  to  sell  imported  suita 
here  at  a  profit  because  of  the  high  duties,  and  no  traveler  carrying  samples  of  ready- 
made  clotn'mg  from  the  United  States  has  appeared  to  attempt  to  change  this  idea. 
Lightweight  suits  in  washable  flannels,  cassimeres,  cassinets,  alpacas,  or  similar 
materials,  in  either  two  or  three  piece  suits,  can  be  sold  here.  As  long  as  the  retail 
price  can  be  kept  between  $10  and  $25,  if  the  colors  and  patterns  are  attractive  and 
the  suits  are  made  on  good  forms,  the  goods  can  be  sold.       .        ,. 

The  duties  on  ready-made  clothing,  which  are  payable  in  gold  on  gross  weight, 
including  all  packing,  are  as  follows:  On  cotton  suits  (coats,  trousers,  or  vests),  $1.30 
per  kilo  ($0.59  per  jwund);  on  linen  suits,  $1.50  per  kilo  ($0.68  per  pound);  on  linen 
suits  with  silk  stripes,  checks,  etc.,  where  the  silk  surface  does  not  exceed  25  per  cent, 
$3.20  per  kilo  ($1.45  per  pound) ;  on  clothing  for  men,  women,  and  children,  of  material 
with  weft  of  wool,  or  wool  and  any  other  fiber  except  silk,  on  a  warp  of  cotton,  hemp, 
or  similar  fiber,  without  mixture  of  wool  or  silk,  with  linings  or  trimmings  other  than 
wool  or  silk,  $1.60  per  kilo  ($0.73  per  pound);  on  clothing  of  other  wool  or  wool  and 
lotlon  material,  with  or  without  light  stripes,  checks,  or  threads  of  silk,  with  liiungi 
or  trimmings  not  of  silk,  lace,  or  embroidery.  $2  per  kilo  ($0.91  per  pound);  on  clothing 
of  woolen  fabrics  not  specified,  $3  per  kilo  ($1.36  per  Dound). 

It  is  suggested  that  clothing  should  be  shipped  in  bales  wrapped  in  waterproofed 
burlap;  and  if  carton  boxes  are  shipped  for  display  they  should  be  shipped  knocked 
down ,  separately  from  the  clothing.    This  last  suggestion  is  offered  in  the  case  of  almort 


any  article  paying  high  rates  of  duties  (such  as  underwear,  cotton  shirts,  and  na;kw^), 
as  the  duty  on  such  boxes,  even  though  they  carry  printed  labels,  is  only  $0.17  per  kilo 

Loca?laUors  charge  $9  to  $10  for  making  a  cassimere  business  suit,  without  furnish- 
ing the  cloth,  $12  to  $15  for  a  frock  suit,  and  $20  for  a  dress  suit.  The  styles  in  demand 
correspond  to  up-to-date  styles  in  the  United  States,  and  old-fashioned  stock  will  have 
no  sale  here.  The  best  sellmg  seasons  are  November  to  January  (inclusive)  and  the 
"before  Easter"  period. 

COSTA   RICA. 

DEMAND  FOR  CHEAl*  GRADES. 
fConsul  Chester  Donaldson,  Port  Limon,  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  Nov.  13, 1914.] 

There  is  no  merchant  in  Port  Limon  or  this  district  who  carries  a  stx)ck  of  ready' 
made  clothing  other  than  the  ordinary  cotton  working  clothes,  overalls,  shirts,  and 
various  grades  of  underclothing.  The  population  of  this  district  is  largely  made  up 
of  negro  and  peon  laborers,  and  a  cheap  cotton  shirt  and  a  pair  of  overalls  suffice  for 
their  needs.  The  climate  is  so  warm  and  moist  that  any  suit  of  fine  woolen  material 
not  in  daily  use  mildews  and  soon  becomes  worthless;  consequently  no  such  goods  are 

keDt  in  stock 

In  the  consular  district  of  San  Jose,  which  includes  all  the  larger  cities  of  Costa  Rica 

and  is  at  such  an  elevation  that  the  climate  is  delightful  and  cool  all  the  year  through, 

there  are  several  large  ready-made  clothing  house?.    The  principal  one  of  these  im- 

/^  ports  and  keeps  in  stock  a  large  variety  of  fine  ready-made  clothing,  which  heretofore 

has  been  purchased  from  France. 

LONG-TIME  CREDIT  DEMANDED. 

[Consul  Chester  Donaldson,  Port  Limon,  Commerce  Reports,  May  29, 1915.] 

Neither  women's  nor  men's  ready-made  clothing  has  become  popular  in  this  dis- 
trict. Local  tailors  and  dressmakers  control  practically  all  such  trade,  making  the 
clothes  to  order.  Underclothes,  hats,  corsets,  hosiery,  etc..  are  generally  imported. 
It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  grant  credits  in  order  to  do  business  in  Central  America, 
where  European  houses  have  been  in  the  habit  of  allowing  four  to  six  months  and 
sometimes  nine  months  or  even  one  year  to  well-known  customers. 

CUBA. 

IMPORTS   OP  READY-MADE   CLOTHING  INCREASING. 
(Consular  Agent  Dean  R.  Wood,  Neuvitas,  Dally  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  Aug.  28, 1914.] 

During  the  last  few  years  a  proEfperous  trade  has  been  built  up  in  Cuba  in  American 
ready-made  clothing,  a  number  of  firms  in  the  United  States  participating  therein. 
Cuba's  foreign  trade  is  growing,  and  the  imports  of  such  clothing  are  especially  increas- 
ing. Other  American  manufacturers  might  share  in  this  market  if  they  send  attractive 
goods  and  if  shipping  documents  are  properly  made  out. 

Chambray,  khaki,  and  drill  shirts,  denim  overalls,  khaki  and  drill  trousers  are 
being  imported  into  Cuba  in  large  quantities,  coming  almost  entirely  from  the  United 
States.  However,  the  trade  is  not  confined  to  workingmen's  clothing.  Considerable 
quantities  of  the  finer  grades  of  cotton  goods,  and  clothing  made  of  wool  and  silk,  or 
mixtures  thereof  with  cotton,  also  ready-made  clothing  for  women,  are  imported. 
Effort  has  been  made  to  manufacture  in  Cuba  grades  of  cotton  clothing,  but  without 
much  success. 

In  shipping  ready-made  clothing  to  Cuba  the  gross  and  net  weight  of  the  packages 
should  be  given,  as  well  as  the  net  weight  of  each  article  or  class  of  goods.  The  Cuban 
duty  on  ready-made  clothing  is  based  on  the  duty  on  the  component  material,  which 
is  determined  by  the  thread  count.  Surtaxes  are  provided  for  admixtures  of  wool, 
silk,  etc.,  as  well  as  for  coloring  or  dyeing. 

Ready-made  clothing  generally  bears  on  every  garment  a  reference  mark  or  number. 
The  invoice  should  contain  separately  the  net  weight  of  garments  of  each  mark  or 
number.  This  is  necessary  because  certain  fabrics  that  may  appear  to  be  in  the  same 
class  actually  have  more  or  fewer  threads  than  goods  of  similar  appearance  in  the 
customhouse,  as  the  case  may  be. 

U914*»— 16 ^19 


I' 

N 


290 


men's  factoby-made  clothing  industey. 


If  ready-made  clothing  is  packed  in  cardboard  boxes,  as  is  often  the  caae,  the  net 
weight  of  these  boxes  should  be  eiven  separately  from  the  net  weight  of  the  goods  or 
the  not  weight  of  the  goods  only  should  be  given.  Thus  considerable  savings  in  duties 
may  result  to  the  buyer  of  the  goods. 

If  goods  contain  a  mixture  of  other  material  the  fact  should  be  stated  in  the  invoice 
as  well  as  the  percentage  of  other  material.  If  mixture  is  more  than  one-fifth  a(  the 
number  of  cotton  threads  the  goods  are  considered  as  wool,  silk,  or  other  material,  aa 
the  rase  may  be.  Goods  composed  entirely  of  wool  or  silk  are  charged  on  the  ad 
valorem  basis  and  not  by  the  number  of  threads.  On  linen  goods  the  duty  varies 
according  to  the  number  of  threads,  as  on  cotton  goods. 

The  correct  making  out  of  invoices  for  shipment  to  Cuba  is  not  difficult.  Customers 
should  be  asked  from  time  to  time  if  goods  have  been  received  in  good  condition  with 
everything  satisfactory,  and  if  they  have  any  suggestions  to  offer. 

ENGLAND. 

UTTLE  CLOTHmO   EXPORTED  TO  THE   UNTTED   STATES. 

IConsul  Homer  M.  Bylngton,  Leeds,  Commerce  Reports,  July  26, 1915.] 

It  18  hardly  likely  to  be  disputed  that  Leeds  and  London  are  the  two  foremost 
English  ciUes  in  the  manufacture  of  ready-made  clothing,  and  it  estimated  that  in 
Leeds  between  40,000  and  50,000  workers  (about  50  per  cent  of  whom  are  Russian 
I'oland  Jews)  are  employed  in  this  trade,  so  that  local  prosperity  depends  to  a  certain 
extent  upon  a  profitable  year's  business.  The  year  1914  opened  badly,  with  8lack 
orders  until  March,  when  a  short-lived  recovery  took  place  until  June,  only  to  settle 
down  to  a  poor  outlook  for  the  fall  and  winter  seasons;  but  with  the  outbreak  of  war 
in  August  came  the  necessity  of  clothing  the  increased  army,  and  soon  nearlv  all  local 
manufacturers  turned  their  attention  to  khaki  uniforms.  The  year  ended  with  extra 
hands  and  extra  time  being  general,  and  so  continued  after  the  beginning  of  the  present 
year.  Although  the  handling  of  khaH  and  making  of  uniforms  was  new  to  most 
manufacturers  and  workers,  the  Government  contracts  were  worked  at  such  a  pace 
as  to  keep  well  within  sight  of  the  number  of  enlistments  Iteady-made  clothine 
was  declared  for  export  to  the  United  States  in  1914  to  the  value  of  $21,995,  butin  1913 
the  shipments  were  not  of  a  sufficient  value  to  justify  a  separate  clasoification. 

GERMANY. 

MARKET   FOR   STANDARD  STYLES. 
(Consul  Charles  A.  Holder,  Cologne,  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  May  26, 1914.] 

In  this  district,  unlike  the  United  States,  ready-made  clothing,  though  bought  in 
lai^e  quantities  by  the  laboring  classes,  is  almost  never  worn  by  well-to-do  men 
and  IS  worn  by  only  a  very  small  percentage  of  those  in  moderate  circumstances.        ' 

Men  who  can  afford  good  clothes  naturally  prefer  to  have  them  made  to  order  but 
many  with  limited  means  patronize  custom  tailors  solelv  because  the  latter  are  accus- 
tomed to  selling  on  credit,  while  clothing  stores  never  *do.  As  a  consequence  manv 
made-to-order  suits  are  seen  here  where  the  cloth,  fit,  and  general  finish  are  greatly 
inferior  to  the  average  suit  made  by  American  manufacturers  of  ready-to-wear  clothing 
although  they  have  cost  the  wearer  considerably  more  money.  The  method  in  \'ogiie 
here  among  custom  tailors,  of  making  suits  upon  the  receipt  of  20  or  25  marks  ($4  76 
or  15.95),  with  the  balance  payable  in  monthly  installments,  is  one  reason  why  sales 
of  the  better  grades  of  ready-made  clothing  are  not  larger,  but  a  greater  reason  is  to  be 
found  m  the  comparatively  poor  quality  and  the  limited  variety  of  cloths  and  patterns 
to  be  found  m  the  ready-made  suits  offered  for  sale. 

German  clothing  manufacturers  have  not  yet  realized,  apparentlv,  the  possibilities 
offered  by  this  trade,  and  are  about  in  the  portion  that  obtained  among  American 
clothmg  manufacturers  20  or  25  years  ago.  This  market,  therefore,  can  be  greatlv 
developed,  and  under  certain  conditions  offers  an  excellent  opportunity  for  the  sale 
of  men  s  ready-to-wear  American  clothing.  For  bovs'  clothing  there  is  also  a  market 
as  very  little  of  it  is  custom-made.  ' 

All  the  ready-made  clothing  sold  in  this  district  at  present  is  made  in  Germany 
except  overcoats  and  ulnters,  raincoats,  automobile  coats,  and  other  specialties,  which 
are  frequently  of  English  manufacture.  All  of  the  largest  clothing  stores  in  Cologne  have 
factories  in  Stettm,  Berlin,  Breslau,  and  other  northern  cities,  as  wages  in  this  district 
are  too  high  to  render  the  manufacture  of  clothing  profitable.  One  or  two  of  these 
tinns  employ  as  many  as  30  cutters  and  several  hundred   tailors,  not  only  sup- 


f 


1 


FOREIGN    TRADE. 


•291 


il 


rilerXo^nSy  air^eSAat  they  have  their  own  tactor.es,  obtain  the« 
'^^'^g^-^rXl^  *-"-  ZS^^er  ha.  eve,  succeeded 
as  the  clothes,  though  far  superior  to  what  js  usually  ^^f^^^^^  ^^  clothing  sold  in 

^d  for  fancy  waisteoats,  ulsters,  and  ^^f  trousers  wmcn  are  w  German 

becona  quauty,  «/v/  »r^'"     ,     .^„^J,  ,    -.^t  q/^\  oiwavs  made  of  German  cloth. 
Kla"i;L^^f  I'^a^t'^^MTof'al-^o^'^S'rrLTt^       U,  19.52)  and  of  the 

•^r»^Tv^^i"ofn.^ebTtii^tf^.» 

nXId*^  ele^' cSe^  I^K  made  oi  German  cloth  and  sell  for  45  .»  85 

aSHasVtf r J^'»K~ -?j::'r  Si's  Sil 

C£iiSS?!iiS;"  S.  is" to'™ .  to.»nd  i«  high-  i»i"  ™id  ,«u> 

ally  follow. 


292 


MEN^S  FACTORY-MADE   CLOTHING  INDUSTRY. 


FOREIGN    TRADE. 


293 


Nt 


GUATEMALA. 

ALL  IMPORTED  CLOTHING  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
(8i>ecial  Agent  B.  Joachim,  Commerce  Reports,  Feb.  25, 1915.] 

Readv-made  clothing  is  imported  into  Guatemala  only  to  a  limited  extent.  That 
which  does  come  in  is  of  United  States  make  and  is  of  the  medium  grade.  Suits  that 
sell  in  the  United  States  for  $10  or  $12  are  occasionally  marketed,  the  price  in  Guate- 
mala running  about  $18  in  United  States  currency.  No  ready-made  clothing  is  im- 
ported from  any  other  country. 

The  sale  of  r^idy-made  clothing  for  men  and  boys  is  not  common  in  Guatemala,  and 
most  clothing  worn  is  purchased  from  tailors,  who  make  up  the  goods  to  order  in  the 
same  way  as  the  better  class  of  goods  is  sold  in  the  Unitea  States.  The  material  for 
these  suits  comes  in  very  large  part  from  Europe,  partly  because  the  manufacturers  of 
England,  Germany,  Italy,  France,  and  the  otner  countries  have  been  engaged  in  the 
trade  for  many  years,  know  the  tastes  of  the  people,  and  are  willing  to  supply  the  trade 
with  the  particular  styles  and  patterns  desired,  and  to  extend  long  credits.  American 
manufacturers  of  cloth  have  in  general  so  far  failed  to  make  any  extensive  study  of 
the  market.  The  principal  reasons  why  they  have  not  secured  the  comparatively 
large  share  of  the  trade  which  they  might  have  had  are  that  they  have  not  learned 
what  the  people  want  in  the  way  of  patterns  and  styles,  and  that  they  are  unwill- 
ing to  make  up  the  separate  patterns  in  the  small  lots  desired  by  the  Guatemalan 
buyers  or  meet  their  wishes  in  regard  to  credits.  The  people  of  Guatemala  are  as 
much  or  more  attached  to  the  distinctive  stvles  prevailing  there  as  the  people  in  the 
United  States,  and  just  as  Americans  would  not  care  to  purchas"!  conspicuously  col- 
ored, striped,  or  checked  clothing  because  they  have  not  been  used  to  seeing  or  wear- 
ing these  goods,  so  the  Guatemalans  insist  on  having  the  particular  styles  prevailing 
in  their  country.  The  European  manufacturers  are  perfectly  familiar  with  these  pref- 
erences and  take  care  to  observe  them  in  attempting  to  maJce  sales.  There  seems  to 
be  no  reason  why  Americans  should  not  have  three-fourths  or  more  of  the  trade  if  they 
will  cater  to  the  wants  of  the  people  and  if  they  can  profitably  manufacture  Uie  differ- 
ent styles  in  the  small-size  lots  required. 

The  clothing  for  men  is  all  made  from  this  imported  cloth  by  hand  or  with  the  use 
of  sewing  machines,  no  power  machinery  being  used.  As  noted,  it  is  made  up  to 
order,  with  the  exception  of  the  cheapest  class  of  ^oods  worn  by  the  Indians.  Tnese 
are  made  in  large  lots  and  sold  as  ready-made  clothmg  is  sold  in  the  United  States,  the 
price  being  very  low.  The  usual  clothing  worn  by  the  Indian  men  consists  of  a  shirt 
(usually  gay  colored  J,  a  pair  of  trousers  reaching  to  the  ankles,  and  a  short  jacket,  the 
whole  costing  probably  less  than  $1  United  States  currency.  When  the  weather  is 
cool  the  Indian  wears  a  cheap  cotton  blanket,  and  these  blankets  are  consequently 
sold  in  great  quantities.  They  come  almost  altogether  from  England  and  Germany, 
but  could  eaedy  be  supplied  from  the  United  States.  Gay  colors  and  patterns  are 
usually  preferred  by  the  Indians,  who  are  very  conservative  and  will  not  buy  goods 
of  a  color  to  which  they  are  not  accustomed.  Some  cheap  blankets  are  manufactured 
in  Guatemala,  and  these  retail  at  35  to  40  cents  apiece  or  even  less.  The  imported 
blankets  purchased  by  the  Indians  will  avenge  perhaps  55  or  60  cents  retail,  and  this 
price  represents  a  profit  of  150  to  200  per  cent.  [About  60  per  cent  of  the  2,000,000 
people  of  Guatemala  are  Indians  and  most  of  the  rest  are  of  mixed  blood.] 

Tiie  clothing  worn  by  clerks,  small  tradesmen,  etc.,  is  of  the  kind  that  would  cost 
$10  to  $20  a  suit  in  the  United  States.  A  clerk  ^ill  probably  have  one  good  suit  at 
$20  or  more  and  one  or  two  others  of  lower  price.  Merchants  and  business  men  also 
wear  a  comparatively  inexpensive  suit  for  aaily  use,  with  better  clothes  for  evening 
and  holiday  purposes.  The  workmanship  on  uiese  clothes  is  usually  good  so  far  as 
wearing  qualities  are  concerned,  but  the  style  and  appearance  of  even  the  better 
grades  of  suits  are  generally  inferior  to  the  style  and  appearance  of  United  States 
clothing.  It  is  thought  that  under  normal  conditions  a  good  sale  in  American  ready- 
made  clothing  might  be  built  up,  but  it  would  be  necessary  first  of  all  to  send  down 
the  right  patterns,  and  as  the  people  are  not  accustomed  to  buying  the  ready-made 
suits  a  certain  amount  of  intelligent  missionary  work  would  also  doubtless  be  required. 
The  few  lots  of  American  ready-made  clothing  that  have  heretofore  come  in  have 
been  of  the  $10  to  $20  grade,  and  these  have  filtered  through  onlv  in  a  haphazard 
manner.  One  mek;hant,  for  instance,  ha*  a  stock  of  goods  on  hand  which  his  repre- 
sentative picked  up  at  a  bargain  in  New  York  and  snipped  down  to  him.  He  sold 
the  better  suits  (as  many  as  80  or  90)  without  great  difficulty,  but  the  others  w«re 
hard  to  dispose  of  and  were  left  on  his  hande.  It  is  probable  that  many  of  these 
might  be  marketed  if  slightly  altered.    It  is  details  such  as  this  that  the  American 


- 


exporter  would  have  to  look  after  if  he  desired  to  push  his  goods.  The  fact  that 
these  suits  were  sold  and  that  others  are  occasionaUy  marketed  is  sufficient  proof 
that  a  potential  demand  exists  and  needs  only  intelligent  cultivation  to  result  in  a 
steady  trade. 

The  clothing  worn  by  the  larger  merchants  and  other  business  men,  lawyers, 
doctors,  government  oflicials,  etc.,  is  of  a  substantial  grade,  prices  running  irom 
$30  to  $40  or  more.  These  suitings  are  largely  woolens,  and  the  total  amount  used 
in  a  year  for  this  purpose  would  probably  amount  to  a  value  of  $100,000.  The 
woolens  come  in  large  part  from  England  and  Germany,  though  other  European 
countries  also  share  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  in  the  trade.  The  United  States  sells 
few  or  no  goods  of  this  kind,  for  the  single  reason  that  the  United  States  merchants 
have  not  care^  to  cater  to  the  trade.  There  seems  no  doubt  that  a  substantial  trade 
in  theye  goods  could  be  built  up  by  the  United  States  if  proper  care  were  used  in 
selecting  patterns  and  in  looking  after  similar  details.  For  everyday  business 
purpose:*  the  sack  suit  common  in  the  United  States  is  now  generally  worn,  though 
a  few  years  ago  a  more  formal  dress  was  common.  For  official  calls  on  officers  of  the 
government,  day  weddings,  and  similar  formal  social  affairs  the  cutaway  suit  is 
common,  though  sometimes  the  Prince  Albert  is  worn.  The  dress  suit  is  generally 
worn  at  formal  evening  functions  as  in  the  United  States,  and  Tuxedos  to  a  certain 
extent  in  the  clubs,  etc.  There  is  a  certain  market  for  this  class  of  goods,  but  it  is 
necessarily  small.  There  is  a  possibility,  however,  that  ready-made  dress  suits 
might  be  sold,  and  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  establish  the  sale  of  ready-made  garments 
in  the  market,  it  would  probably  be  as  well  to  include  some  suits  of  this  kind  in  the 
stock  sent  down. 

The  climate  of  Guatemala  in  most  settled  sections  is  not  tropical,  and  this  applies 
especially  to  Guatemala  City  and  the  surrounding  country.  Thin  clothing  is  therefore 
not  particularly  in  demand.  The  evenings  are  rather  cool,  as  are  also  the  days,  as  a 
rule,  except  for  the  hours  between  10  a.  m.  and  2.30  or  3  p.  m.  Suits  are  nearly 
always  full  lined,  the  lining  material  being  of  all  erades,  from  the  cheapest  to  the 
very  good.  These  linings  come  from  Europe,  as  the  merchants  prefer  to  buy  this 
material  from  the  same  sources  as  the  other  cloth  for  suits.  American  linings  can  be 
sold  and  a  trade  in  them  will  probably  spring  up  as  soon  as  American  woolens  and 
other  suitings  begin  to  be  sold.  The  American  practice  of  going  without  a  waistcoat 
in  the  hot  summer  weather  is  not  followed  in  Guatemala,  waistcoats  being  invariably 
worn  under  all  circumstances.  Fancy  waistcoats  are  seen,  and  occasionally  white 
waistcoats,  but  the  latter  are  not  common. 

For  two  months  or  so  of  the  rainy  season  overcoats  are  occasionally  worn  in  the 
evenings,  and  a  certain  deniand  for  them  could  be  cultivated.  These  are  of  medium 
weight,  and  are  of  no  special  design.  Those  now  worn  are  made  generally  in  the 
country  itself,  but  there  is  apparently  no  reason,  except  perhaps  the  duty,  why  they 
could  not  be  imported.  In  tne  seaports  and  other  towns  where  tropical  conditions 
prevail,  some  white  suitings,  such  as  duck,  white  serge,  and  flannels,  are  worn,  but 
the  population  of  these  places  is  small  and  the  number  of  people  among  whom  a 
demand  for  these  goods  might  be  created  is  therefore  limited.  Of  the  suitings 
mentioned,  the  ducK,  obtained  usually  from  England,  is  most  in  evidence.  Full 
suits  of  this  material  are  often  worn,  thou^  the  white  serge  trousers  are  usually  worn 
with  coats  of  a  darker  material.  The  "Palm  Beach"  suits  worn  by  some  tourists 
and  traveling  men  last  summer  were  much  admired,  and  a  large  number  could  have 
been  sold  had  they  been  on  hand.  It  is  quite  likely  that  in  1915  these  suits  will 
become  very  popular,  and  it  would  be  of  value  to  American  manufacturers  to  investi- 
gate the  market  personally. 

The  rainy  season  lasts  some  four  months  in  Guatemala,  and  there  is  consequently  a 
considerable  demand  for  mackintoshes  and  cravenettes.  Up  to  a  few  years  ago  these 
were  almost  universally  the  old-style  black  rubber  mackintoshes,  with  pointed 
hoods,  and  came  from  Germany  and  England .  These  still  largely  prevail,  but  are  being 
slowly  displaced  by  the  American  waterproof  cravenette,  which  is  well  liked.  It  is 
likely  that  in  a  few  years  these  will  be  worn  entirely  by  those  able  to  purchase  the 
better  grade  of  goods,  though  there  will  continue  to  be  a  market  for  the  less  expensive 
all-rubber  coats.  Prices  at  present  range  as  high  as  $25,  but  seldom  go  above  that. 
This  is  a  field  that  deserves  attention,  and  American  manufacturers  \*ill  find  a  con- 
tinuous demand  for  goods  once  introduced  and  found  to  be  satisfactory. 

Workingmen's  overalls  and  jackets  such  as  are  used  generally  in  the  United  States 
to  protect  the  clothing  are  practically  unknown  in  Guatemala.  The  clothing  worn 
by  the  peons  is  no  better  than  the  usual  grade  of  overalls,  and  there  would  be  no 
particular  reason  for  protecting  it.  The  prica  of  our  overalls  is  also  too  high  to  permit 
much  of  a  sale  in  Central  America.  The  buttons  used  on  clothing  manufactured  in 
the  country  have  come  in  most  part  from  Austria  and  Germany,  and  these  supplies 


4^1^ 


'i 


■•' 


294 


men's  factoby-made  clothing  industry. 


are  cut  off  for  the  present.  There  was  a  considerable  stock  on  hand,  however,  when 
the  war  broke  out,  and  present  conditions  are  not  likely  to  cause  an  immediate 
shortage. 

INDIA. 

INCREASED   USE   OF  WATERPROOF  CLOTHINO. 
[Consul  Henry  D.  Baker,  Bombay,  Dally  Consular  and  Trade  Reports.  Oct.  21, 1914.] 

There  is  a  fair  trade  in  India  in  waterproof  clothing,  the  imports  for  1913-14 
amounting  to  $80,776,  as  against  $57,880  for  the  preceding  year.  Waterproof  clothino-, 
like  umbrellas,  meets  with  an  urgent  and  increasing  demand  during  India's  monsoon 
seasons.  Waterproof  coats  and  cloaks  sell  at  $1.50  up  to  $15  apiece,  according  to 
size  and  quahty.  Usually  dealers  order  from  the  manufacturers  about  a  year  before 
the  date  of  delivery,  as  generally  tht  more  time  allowed  manufacturers  for  execution 
of  the  orders  the  cheaper  they  can  be  obtained.  Orders  are  usually  sent  in  for  the 
ensuing  ^ear  shortly  after  the  monsoon  season  has  started.  At  this  time  dealers  are 
in  a  position  to  know  whether  or  not  they  will  have  much  unsold  stock  left  over 
the  demand,  of  course,  depending  considerably  upon  the  intensity  of  the  monsoon 
and  also  upon  the  general  trade  conditions. 

The  big  demand  may  be  expected  during  the  early  days  of  the  monsoon,  during 
the  latter  part  of  June  or  the  early  part  of  July.  The  newspapers  of  India  at  this 
time  are  especially  full  of  advertisements  of  all  kinds  of  waterproof  apparel  as  well 
^  ^'^^  ••  ^^®  leading  department  store  of  Bombay  advertised  the  importation 
of  3,500  raincoats  for  the  past  monsoon  season.  England  supplies  practically  all 
watorproof  apparel  used  in  India,  and  resident  Europeans  are  the  chief  purchasers 
The  cheapest  class  of  goods  they  purchase  for  their  servants.  Among  most  coolies 
and  agricultural  laborers  wh©  are  obliged  to  work  outdoors  in  rainv  weather,  the  chief 
protection  from  the  rain  consists  of  coarse  woolen  blankets  that  are  folded  to  make 
a  kind  of  hood  over  their  heads  and  a  cloak  over  their  bodies.  While  such  blankets 
are  not  impervious  to  water,  they  lessen  the  disagreeable  effects  of  the  heavy  rains. 

MEXICO. 

AMERICAN   MANUFACTURERS   NEGLECTING  A  PROMISING  MARKET. 

fVice  Consul  A.  Gordon  Brown.  Mazatlan,  Dally  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  Aug.  2.5, 1914.] 

In  the  lar^e  Mexican  cities  there  is  considerable  sale  of  Americ.yi  ready-made  cloth- 
ing, and  it  is  surprising  that  no  merchant  in  Mazatlan,  a  city  of  20.000,  handles  this 
nne. 

A  demand  would  develop  for  such  garments  if  they  were  introduced  after  the  people 
became  convinced  that  they  could  save  money  by  purchasing  them.  It  is  difficult 
to  get  any  kind  of  a  presentable  suit  here  for  less  than  $25,  United  States  currency. 
TaUor-made  clothing  is  worn  by  everybody  except  the  poorer  people,  who  use  ready^ 
made  overalls  to  a  great  extent. 

Clothing,  such  as  can  be  bought  in  the  United  States  for  $15  and  at  closing-out  sales 
as  low  as  $10  a  suit,  is  unknown  in  the  Mazatlan  district.  If  suits  were  offered  here  at 
retail  at  $15  to  $25  in  competition  with  tailor-made  garments  they  would  find  a  good 
market.  The  well-to-do  Mexicans  wear  the  latest  stvles  and  are  well  dressed .  Ameri- 
can ready-made  shirts,  hats,  neckwear,  and  hoiscry'  etc..  are  already  being  sold  here. 

The  American  manufacturer  who  contemplates*  offering  clothing  to  this  market  is 
favored  in  that,  on  account  of  the  climate,  the  garments  worn  are  of  very  light  weight. 
As  the  customs  duty  is  based  on  weight,  it  is  claimed  that  ready-made  suits  of  good 
texture  could  be  imported  here  advantageously. 

Two  Mazatlan  tailor-made  suits  may  be  taken  for  illustration:  A  summer  two-piece 
suit  costing  $25  was  found  to  weight  1 .3  kilos  (2.86  pounds).  The  customs  duty  on  a 
similar  foreign  ready-made  suit,  if  made  of  cotton,  would  be  $1.16;  of  wool,  $2  73 
A  winter  suit  costing  $30  was  found  to  weigh  2.2  kilos  (4.85  pounds).  The  customs 
duty  on  a  similar  foreign  readv-made  suit,  if  made  of  cotton,  would  be  $1.96:  of  wool, 
$4.63.  The  above  rates  have  been  calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  value  of  the  Mexican 
peso  during  the  month  of  July  and  include  a  surtax  of  12  per  cent  of  the  duty. 

The  freight  rate  by  water  on  merchandise  from  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  to  Mazatlan, 
per  2.000  pounds  or  40  cubic  feet  space,  is  $7. 

This  information  is  presented  with  the  hope  that  there  will  be  peace  on  the  Mexican 
west  coast  shortly.  At  present  duties  have  been  increased  approximately  67  per  cent 
and  business  is  paralyzed. 


4. 


•r-n—^ 


FOREIGN    TRADE. 


295 


On  account  of  the  climate  in  this  and  the  surrounding  country,  overalls  as  suits  are 
not  as  much  used  as  in  other  localities,  although  there  is  some  trade  in  overall  pants. 
To  the  south  in  the  more  tropical  climes  a  light  cotton  cloth  is  used  to  make  the  wear- 
ing apparel  of  the  classes  who  would  wear  the  overalls  in  the  United  States.  This  is 
always  a  white  cloth  and  very  thin,  resembling  pajamas. 

There  are  factories  at  Villa  Union,  Sinaloa,  and  at  Los  Angeles,  Sonora,  which  manu- 
facture cloth  for  the  overalls.  The  merchants  buy  the  cloth  and  employ  the  Chinese 
here  to  make  them  up,  the  charge  being  $2.50  to  $3.50  Mexican  currency  for  making 
a  dozen  pair  each  of  pants  and  shirts.  About  three  dozen  pair  of  pants  are  sold  to  one 
dozen  shirts,  due  to  flie  climate.  A  suit  of  overalls  sells  here  at  $3  or  $4  United  States 
currency,  according  to  quality.  One  side  is  dyed  a  dark  blue  and  the  other  side  a 
Ught  blue,  and  the  suits  are  made  up  on  the  light-blue  side.  These  make  good  suits 
and  are  used  to  some  extent  by  those  of  moderate. means  in  Lower  California. 

The  cotton  for  this  work  is  obtained  from  Acapulco,  Acaponeta,  Lower  California, 
Sonora.  Sinaloa,  and  Torreon. 

Firms  in  the  United  States  which  are  considering  the  markets  in  this  part  of  Mexico 
must  meet  the  high  Mexican  duty  on  this  class  of  wearing  apparel,  which  is  $2.75 
Mexican  currency  per  kilo,  equivalent,  at  the  present  value  of  the  Mexican  peso,  to 
about  $0.40  per  pound. 

There  is  an  excellent  market  in  this  part  of  Mexico  if  the  American  manufacturer 
offers  overalls  in  competition  with  the  local  output.  Thousands  of  suits  could  be  sold. 
In  the  State  of  Sonora  there  are  factories  which  manufacture  overalls,  and  they  are 
doing  very  well. 

In  all  the  mining  camps  throughout  this  district  overalls  are  used  to  a  great  extent. 

NORWAY. 

OPPORTUNITY  FOR   SALE   OP  AMERICAN  CLOTHING. 
(Consul  General  Charles  A.  Holder.  Christiania,  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  Sept.  26, 1913.] 

For  American  ready-made  suits  that  sell  at  retail  for  $15  to  $20,  Christiania  offers  a 
splendid  opportunity.  Most  of  the  suits  now  on  the  market  are  poorly  cut,  have  little 
style  or  shape,  and  are  not  warranted  to  be  wool  or  not  to  shrink,  to  keep  their  color, 
or  to  wear  well.  Nothing  approaching  the  high-grade  American  ready-made  clothing 
can  be  found  here,  atid  these  are  even  superior  to  the  suits  made  by  custom  tailors 
in  style,  finish,  and  general  appearance. 

While  Norwegian  clothing  dealers  know  little  about  American  clothing  (though 
they  state  that  American  tailors  are  considered  superior  to  all  others),  there  are  enough 
Norwegian-Americans  or  Norwegians  who  have  traveled  in  America  to  form  the  nu- 
cleus of  a  demand  that  would  quickly  spread  if  American  clothing  could  once  be 
introduced.  American  manufacturers  who  send  salesmen  to  England  would  find  it 
well  worth  while  to  include  Christiania  in  their  visits,  or  if  sample  suits  were  sent  to 
a  local  agent  it  is  possible  that  this  would  suffice. 

It  would  seem  thai  the  best  method  of  introducing  these  articles  into  Christiania 
would  be  through  the  medium  of  a  commission  agent  who  would  be  constantly  in 
touch  with  the  trade.  The  import  duty  on  such  goods  can  not  be  stated  until  a  sample 
has  ])een  submitted  to  the  customs  authorities  here  for  decision.  Correspondence 
may  be  in  English  or  Norwegian,  but  all  advertising  matter  should  be  in  Norwegian; 
prices,  should  be  quoted  f.  o.  b.  steamer  at  seaport.  Direct  lines  run  from  Boston, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Newport  News,  and  Gulf  ports  to  Norway  regularly  and 
frequently. 

NOVA   SCOTIA. 

CLOTHING  TRADE  LITTLE   AFFECTED  BY  WAR. 
(Consul  General  Evan  E.  Young,  Raillax.  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  Oct.  5, 1914.] 

The  trade  in  ready-made  clothing  and  haberdashery  will  apparently  be  little 
affected,  iu  so  far  as  concerns  imoortations,  by  the  European  conflict.  Except  in  the 
cheaper  grades  of  ready-made  clothing,  which  have  heretofore  been  obtained  from 
Germany  and  Belgium,  the  bulk  of  the  ready-made  clothing  imported  into  this  con- 
sular district  is  purchased  in  England,  and  shipments  continue  to  be  received  from 
*'. at  source. 


i 


si 


'.» 


296  men's  factoby-made  clothing  industry. 

scotland. 

AMERICAN  STYLES  POPULAR. 
P^>nstil  RufUs  Fleming,  Edinburgh,  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  Oct.  16, 1014.] 

It  is  especially  noteworthy  that  prominent  woolen  cloth  concerns  which  have  never 
before  considered  the  "ready-made"  trade  are  entertaining  a  suggestion  that  a  syndi- 
cate be  formed  to  undertake  this  branch  of  manufacture.  Some  small  firms  have 
engaged  in  the  production  of  clothing  with  much  success.  Orders  from  the  British 
Government  and  prospective  orders  from  France  have  induced  the  larger  mill  owners 
to  think  seriously  of  the  tailoring  branch  of  the  business  in  connection  with  cloth 
manufacture,  thus  carrying  on  the  trade  completely  from  the  wool  to  the  wearer.  It  is 
claimed  that  suits  can  be  produced  to  sell  at  $11  retail.  It  is  said  that  a  good  18-ounce 
cheviot  cloth  can  be  made,  all  wool,  at  $1  a  yard  when  orders  are  in  bulk.  The  aver- 
se cost  at  the  factory  of  making  a  suit  may  be  taken  as  $2.45.  This  leaves  about  $5.05 
for  marketing. 

There  is  a  probability  that  the  "ready-made  "  trade  will  develop  rapidly  under  the 
impetus  which  Government  orders  have  given  and  that  this  branch  of  manufacture 
will  become  an  important  feature  of  the  Scotch  woolen  industry.  This  opinion  is 
strengthened  not  a  little  by  the  fact  that  for  several  years  the  sales  of  ready-to-wear  suits 
have  been  steadily  increasing.  A  fair  proportion  of  men's  suits  sold  in  this  market  are 
now  made  in  America  of  Scotch  cloth.  The  style,  finish,  fine  appearance,  and  wearing 
quahtv  of  the  clothing  have  popularized  ready-made  articles,  even  breaking  down  the 
prejudice  of  many  men  who  have  heretofore  looked  at  nothing  not  made  to  measure. 
As  new  conditions  are  requiring  the  most  careful  economy,  the  time  seems  auspicious 
for  the  development  of  the  wholesale  tailoring  industry. 

SOUTH   AFRICA. 

MARKET  FOR   OLD-STYLE   CLOTHING. 
(Consul  Edwin  N.  Ounsaulus,  Johannesburg,  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  Aug.  6, 1914.] 

Throughout  this  consular  district,  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mines,  there  is 
a  very  brisk  trade  in  old-style  American  clothing,  which  will  increase  to  a  marked 
degree,  provided  exporters  strictly  comply  with  the  methods  of  packing  and  export 
articles  corresponding  to  samples. 

For  the  most  part,  local  agents  obtain  their  requirements  in  shipments  of  10,000  to 
16,000  garments  per  month,  and  dispose  of  them  to  the  wholesale  houses,  which  in 
turn  distribute  them  to  their  smaller  customers.  The  smaller  firms  are  mostly  estab- 
Ui^ed  in  close  proximity  to  the  mines,  and  dispose  of  these  goods  to  natives  working 
in  and  around  the  mines  and  works  of  every  description.  These  natives  are  mostly  ol 
a  burly  type  and  the  sizes  in  demand  are  4,  5,  6,  and  7,  with  a  very  small  percentile 
of  size  3,  packed  in  bales  of  200  assorted  sizes,  each  bale  containing  50  suits  size  4,  75 
suits  size  5,  50  suits  size  6,  and  25  suits  size  7.  The  reason  for  this  method  of  paclang 
is  to  allow  merchants  to  dispose  of  their  supplies  in  bales,  without  previously  having 
to  sort  them  out.  In  this  respect  merchants  have  hitherto  experienced  considerable 
<3Uflaculty  when  dealing  with  American  firms.  In  order  to  avoid  unnecessary  delay  in 
correspondence  samples  should  be  submitted  in  the  first  instance. 

SPAIN. 

TOO  DRY  FOR  RAINCOATS. 
(Consul  Frederick  T.  F.  Dumont,  Madrid,  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  Jan.  19, 1914.] 

The  rainfall  in  most  of  Spain  being  very  slight,  the  trade  in  raincoats  is  limited. 
No  coats  are  manufactured  in  this  consular  district.  Dealers  buy  from  England  and 
pay  either  cash  with  order  or  draft  at  30  days,  according  to  the  standing  of  the  pur- 
chasing house.  It  is  stated  that  goods  are  usually  ordered  from  catalogues,  the  trade 
not  being  important  enough  to  warrant  sending  buyers  to  London  for  raincoats  alone. 
No  resident  salesmen  for  these  goods  have  been  found,  and  department  stores  are 
unknown.  The  usual  large  store  in  Madrid  carries  from  10  to  50  raincoats  in  stock. 
Certain  houses  are  distributors  to  the  trade  and  do  a  retail  business  in  Madrid  as  well. 

Apparently  the  best  way  to  get  this  trade  is  to  forward  catalogues  and  samples  direct 
to  Madrid  houses.  A  request  for  American  catal(^es  was  recently  receivea  from  one 
house  here.  Correspondence  should  be  in  Spanish,  and  catalogues  in  the  same  lan- 
guid are  advisable. 


FOREIGN   TBADE. 


TURKEY. 


297 


MODERN  CLOTHES  MORE  GENERALLY  WORN. 
[CoDsul  Leslie  A.  Davis,  Ilarput,  Commerce  Reports,  Mar.  1j,  1915.) 

Articles  of  wearing  apparel  that  are  now  imported  from  the  United  States  in  <TnaU 
quantities  might  be  sold  more  extensively.  The  i-apid  increase  in  the  sale  of  second- 
hand clothing  is  an  indication  of  the  possibilities  in  this  line.  The  dealers  in  these 
goods  have  no  diflSculty  in  selling  all  they  can  get  and  report  a  growing  demand  for 
them,  due  largely  to  the  return  of  many  Armenians  who  have  lived  in  the  United  States. 
The  men  in  mis  region  are  gradually  discarding  their  native  "entari"  (a  union  waist 
and  skirt,  in  appearance  like  a  woman's  dress)  for  modem  clothes,  which  they  find 
more  convenient.  Style  is  of  less  consideration  than  cheapness.  One  frequently  sees 
men  wearing  secondhand  women's  jackets. 


L 


I* 


{. 


CHAPTER  X. 

aiOSSABT. 

Following  IS  a  glossary  of  the  various  fabrics  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  men's  ready-made  clothing.  The  description  of  the 
fabrics  has  been  gathered  from  the  folfowing  sources:  Bennett's 
"Woolen  and  worsted  glossary,"  Cole's  '*  Encyclopedia  of  dry  goods," 
Mercury  "Cotton  yearbook/  Mercury  "Wool  yearbook,"  National 
Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers'  '* Textile  glossary,"  Tariff 
Board's  "Cotton  and  wool  manufactures." 

Alpaca. — A  thin,  glistening,  double-fold  fabric,  with  a  fine  cotton  warp;  the  fillini; 
spun  from  alpaca,  the  curly  hair  of  an  animal  of  the  camel  tribe  foimd  in  South 
America. 

Beaver  doth. — ^A  heavy,  double- woven,  smooth-faced  woolen  fabric,  used  for  over- 
coats. 

Brilliantine. — See  Mohair. 

Broadcloth. — A  fine,  wide,  lustrous,  woolen  cloth,  usually  woven  plain  and  com- 
monly black,  finely  dyed,  dressed,  and  finished  with  a  surface  slightly  napped. 

Buckram. — ^A  coarse,  plain  woven  linen  or  cotton  material,  in  width  24  inches, 
heavily  sized  vnih  glue  or  gum,  stiffening  the  fabric  to  a  degree  makine  it  suitable  for 
use  in  clothing  manufacture  for  internal  stiffening  of  garments,  coat  lapels,  etc.,  to 
keep  different  parts  of  garments  in  a  required  shape. 

Canvas. — A  term  applied  to  heavy,  plain,  unbleached,  dyed,  or  yam-dyed  fabric, 
of  different  grades  or  weights.  Properly  made  of  ply  yams,  although  the  term  more 
frequently  applies  to  fabrics  of  such  similar  appearance  made  without  or  partially  of 
ply  yam. 

Cassimere. — A  general  term  for  a  large  and  popular  class  of  woolen  cloths,  made  com- 
monly in  widths  of  27  and  54  inches.  The  fabric,  a^ually  fine  length  texture,  woven 
both  plain  and  twilled  and  in  many  fancy  effects,  is  constmcted  of  yams  prepared 
by  the  "cardins"  process,  as  opposed  to  "combed"  or  worsted  yams.  The  pattern 
is  always  produced  in  the  loom  and  ordinarily  is  confined  to  conventional  plaids, 
checks,  and  stripes  in  quiet  effects. 

Cheviot. — ^A  loosely  twill-woven  cloth,  usually  of  a  roughish  character,  made  nrom 
the  wool  of  the  Cheviot  sheep. 

Chindiilla. — ^A  thick,  heavy,  double-woven  fabric,  with  a  long  napped  surface 
curled  up  into  little  tufts  in  imitation  of  chinchilla  fur  and  especially  adapted  for  over- 
coatings. 

Cormirwf. — A  thick  cotton  pile  material,  corded  or  ribbed  on  the  surface. 

Cotton  worsted. — ^A  medium  or  coarse  yam  fabric,  to  imitate  woolen  fabrics  of  the 
finest  worsted  class,  used  to  manufacture  men's  suiting  end  trousering  of  cheap  sort. 
It  is  made  in  stripes,  checks,  and  plaid  patterns  bv  use  of  dyed  yams  of  different 
coloring.  The  variations  in  tiie  construction  of  the  fabric  are  almost  unlimited, 
and  when  the  construction  is  right  the  fabric  shows  a  clearness  of  detail  in  design 
that  can  be  found  only  in  high-priced  worsteds. 

Covert. — ^A  light  or  medium  style  of  fabric  made  from  double  and  twist  warp  yams 
with  single-yam  fillings.  The  cloth  is  usuallv  rainproofed  and  originally  was  used 
for  outing  or  sport  coats,  but  now  applies  to  all  fabrics  that  have  an  appearance  akin 
to  the  standard  fabric. 

Doeskin. — ^A  compact,  closely  woven,  fine-twilled  Tsatin  face),  face-finished  fabric, 
the  woolly  appearance  produced  by  finishing  with  a  nap;  commonly  dyed  black. 

Farmer^ 8  satin. — A  lining  material  in  extensive  use  for  men's  coats  and  vests.  The 
fobric  is  strong  and  durable  and  composed  of  wool  or  of  a  fine  cotton  warp  and  worsted 
or  mohair  weft.    It  has  a  satin  like  surface  and  is  dyed  black  and  in  plain  colors. 

Frieze. — ^A  coarse,  thick,  and  heavily  napped  woolen  cloth  used  exclusively  in  the 
manufacture  of  warm  overcoats.  The  fabric  has  an  irregular  nap.  It  has  been  generally 
displaced  by  chinchilla. 

298 


GLOSSABY. 


299 


.1 


Hair  cloth. — ^A  variety  of  cloth  constructed  of  cotton  or  linen  warp  and  a  weft  of  hwr. 
Cloth  made  wholly  or  partly  of  hair,  especially  of  the  horse  or  camel,  and  used  at  present 
chiefly  as  an  interlining.  Genuine  hair  cloth  is  elastic  imder  all  conditions  of  the 
weather. 

Homespun. — The  name  applied  to  a  number  of  different  fabrics,  usually  a  coarse 
and  loosely  woven  material  of  medium-grade  wool,  with  a  rough  finish,  woven  in 
imitation  of  the  cloth  formerly  produced  m  the  home  on  the  hand  loom. 

Kersejf. — ^A  heavy,  closely  woven,  woolen  fabric,  fulled  so  as  completely  to  conceal 
the  warp  and  weft  threads,  the  surface  being  finished  with  a  short  and  extremely  fine 
nap.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  overcoats.  The  fabric  is  made  in  a  variety  of  weights 
and  qualities,  usually  54  inches  in  width,  and  is  dyed  in  plain  colors.  The  term 
kersey  is  also  used  to  describe  a  coarse  twilled  cloth,  woven  with  a  cotton  warp  and 
woolen  weft,  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  manufacturing  cheap  clothing. 

Italian  cloth  (farmer's  satin). — ^A  satin  fabric  used  chiefly  for  lini^.  The  fabric 
shows  a  particularly  flossy  appearance  on  the  face,  obtained  by  calendering  or  mer- 
cerizing and  calenaenng.    (See  Farmer's  satin.) 

Melton. — ^A  stout,  woolen  cloth,  fulled,  sheared,  without  a  nap;  is  neither  pressed 
nor  finished.    Also  made  with  cotton  warp  and  woolen  weft. 

Mohair. — ^A  light,  thin^  lustrous  fabric  of  great  durability;  from  the  wool  of  the 
angora  goat.  Mohair,  bnlliantine,  and  Sicilian  are  fabrics  having  the  same  organi- 
zation and  construction.  They  are  each  woven  with  cotton  warp  and  a  mohair  or 
alpaca  weft.  Brilliantine  is  the  finest  and  most  closely  woven,  and  presents  the 
brightest  and  most  lustrous  surface.  Mohair  is  a  grade  lower  than  brilliantine,  while 
Sicilian  is  distinguished  by  being  a  somewhat  heavier  and  stouter  fabric  than  either 
of  the  others. 

Satin. — ^The  true  satin  is  made  entirely  of  silk,  or  with  a  fine  silk  war])  and  a  cotton 
weft,  and  is  specially  noticeable  for  its  luster.  It  is  a  warp  or  weft  surface-cloth 
in  which  the  mtersection  of  warp  and  weft  is  so  arranged  as  to  be  imperceptible, 
thus  giving  the  fabric  its  great  smoothness. 

Satine  or  sateen. — ^A  fine-threaded,  close-twilled  cotton  fabric,  smooth,  soft,  and 
lustrous;  in  various  colors  and  woven  in  various  widths  and  varieties.  The  warp 
or  the  filling  only  appears  on  the  surface  of  the  fabric,  according  to  whether  it  is  a 
warp  sateen  or  a  weft  sateen. 

Satinet. — ^An  imitation  of  the  tme  satin  in  mercerized  cotton  or  other  yarns.  The 
weave  does  not  fulfill  the  conditions  of  the  roal  satin  as  regards  order  of  intersections. 

Serge. — A  generic  title  under  which  is  classed  a  large  number  of  fabrics  of  twill 
constmction,  woven  of  worsted,  silk,  or  cotton  yams,  and  variously  dyed,  finished, 
and  ornamented;  as  silk  serge,  serge  suiting,  storm  serge,  mohair  serge,  etc.  Serge 
suitings  are  a  variety  of  li^ht  wiry  worsteds  woven  with  a  flat  twill  and  dyed  black 
or  in  snades  of  navy  blue;  in  width,  54  inches.  A  lining  of  cotton  or  linen  warp  and 
wool  or  mohair  filling. 

Sicilian. — ^A  cloth  made  from  a  fine  cotton  warp  and  a  thick  mohair  weft  employing 
the  plain  weave.    (See  Mohair.) 

Silesia. — At  present  the  name  is  applied  to  a  light,  thin,  closely  woven,"  and  finely 
twilled  cotton  fabric  with  a  highly  glazed  and  polished  surface  produced  by  calen- 
dering, in  width  usually  36  inches,  dyed  black  and  in  colors  and  also  bleached.  The 
lower  grades  of  silesia  are  finished  with  considerable  dressing,  while  the  higher  grades 
are  soft  finished. 

Tartan. — A  woolen  or  worsted  cloth  woven  with  stripes  of  different  colors  crossing 
each  other  at  right  angles  so  as  to  form  a  definite  pattern  of  checkered  or  plaid  effects. 
This  vari^fated  cloth  was  formerly  the  distinctive  dress,  usually  of  elaborate  design 
and  color  scheme,  of  the  Scottish  highlanders,  the  different  clans  having  each  its 
peculiar  tartan. 

Thibet. — A  strong,  compstct,  twill-woven  cloth,  used  generally  for  overcoats,  in 
weight  and  texture  occupying  a  place  midway  between  melton  and  cheviot.  The 
fabric  is  more  elastic  and  softer  than  melton  and  not  so  nappy  as  cheviot.  It  is 
commonly  dyed  black  or  in  shades  of  navy  blue,  and  in  width  is  54  inches.  The 
nap  being  very  short  and  l5niig  close  to  the  surface  of  the  cloth  causes  the  goods  to 
assume  a  rough,  unfinished  appearance. 

Tweed. — A  finely  woven  twilled  woolen  fabric  of  soft,  open,  and  flexible  texture. 
The  face  of  the  cloth  commonly  presents  an  unfinished  appearance  rather  than  a 
sharp  and  clearly  defined  pattern,  and  the  texture,  while  of  good  weight,  is  of  a 
loose  and  elastic  character.  The  best  kind  is  made  wholly  of  wool,  but  in  inferior 
grades  cotton  is  introduced. 

Unfinished  worsted. — A  soft,  dull-finished  cloth  with  a  slight  nap. 

Velvet. — ^A  closely  woven  silk  staff  having  a  very  thicK  and  short,  close  pile  on 
one  side,  formed  by  carrjdng  part  of  the  silk  warj)  over  small  wires  and  afterwards 


' 


300 


men's  factoby-made  clothing  industry. 


jo^com^on  tLt  real  velvet  ia  commonl7'Suiiritk''°aTt'to"&?Sht"frr 

Kimna.— A  soft  twilled  woolen  cloth  similar  to  cheviot   madfi  of  tho  «r««i  ^f  ♦!. 

"wZ:-2Zlim  """^'  ^-«y.the  supply*:! Xch'isZSld  '^^  ''~'  "'  '^^ 
K         .  ,  7  ?'''^'  op"'  <»nvas-like  mteriminsr  used  foreivine  »hftnc  t/>  mirmon.. 

"n!!^K?5"~^  ^*^"*^  composed  of  wool  prepared  for  spinning  into  vam  bv  thp 
of  fabric  between  the  wSa^d  thi  w^S?"**       ""^  "  ^"""'^  conceivable  kind 


^ 


Miscellaneous  Series  No   34. 


FIG.  lf-ROTARY  OR  CIRCULAR  CUTTING   MACHINE. 


I'* 


^•■^  ^   ••^•.y^   ~^r'-*"  ■■■Mii^"vgg 


^^|-^JJ^^2J^^g^^^^^^^^^^WJ^2^^^^ggJJ 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


I      ^ 


■^ 


»-— » 


FIG.  2.— STRAIGHT-KNIFE  OR  RECIPROCATING  CUTTING  MACHINE. 


FIG.  3.-MACHINE  FOR  SEAMING  TROUSERS  AND  OTHER  GARMENTS 
Flat  bed,  single  needle,  and  one  under  thread. 


t 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34 


^vr 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


FIG.  4.— SEAM-CLOSING   MACHINE. 


FIG.  6.— SERGING   MACHINE. 


FIG.  7.— WORK  DONE  ON  SERGING  MACHINE. 


FIG.  5.— LEFT  FOREQUARTER  OF  A  COAT   MADE  ON  THE  SEAM-CLOSING 

MACHINE. 


<*J^ 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


FIG.  8.-MACHINE  FOR  SERGING  TROUSERS  AND  OTHER  GARMENTS. 
Flatbed,  single  interlock,  without  trimmer. 


'^   \,J  ^ 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


FIG.  9.— CANVAS-FRONT  MAKING  MACHINE. 


J 


FIG.    10.-WORK  DONE  ON  CANVAS-FRONT  MAKING  MACHINE. 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  24. 


FIG.  11.— TWO-ROW  STITCHING  MACHINE. 


FIG.  12.— WORK   DONE  ON  TWO-ROW  STITCHING   MACHINE. 


-     /      - 


FIG.  13.— SLEEVE-INSERTING   MACHINE. 


X 


FIG.  14.— TOP  OF  THE  SLEEVE  GATHERED  ON  GATHERING  MACHINE 
READY  TO  BE  INSERTED   INTO  THE  COAT. 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


FIG.  15.-BUTTONHOLE  MACHINE. 


L 


-<      i 


9 

1 


FIG.  17.— BELT  LOOPS  TACKED  TO  TROUSERS  BY  MACHINE. 


FIG.  16.— WORK  DONE  ON  BUTTONHOLE  MACHINE. 


FIG.  18.— MACHINE  FOR  FOLDING  AND  STITCHING  BELT  LOOPS  FOR  TROUSERS. 

Large  arm.  flat  bed,  and  two  needles. 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


FIG.  19.-MACHINE  FOR  FOLDING  AND  STITCHING  CONCEALED-STITCH  BELT 

LOOPS  FOR  TROUSERS. 

Cup-feed,  overseaming  machine  with  trimmer. 


I 


1 


/ 


L 


1 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


FIG.  20.— BUTTON-SEWING   MACHINE. 


i 


FIG.  21.— BUTTONS  SEWED  ON  BY  MACHINE. 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


FIG.  22.— POCKET-MAKING   MACHINE. 


i 


i 

i 


I 


FIG.  23.-POCKET  CLOSED  ON  POCKET-MAKING  MACHINE. 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


Flat  bed,  single  interlock,  with  trimming  mechan 


ism. 


FIG.  25.-WORK   DONE  ON   BACK-POCKET-MAKING  MACHI 


NE. 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


FIG.  26.-MACHINE  FOR 


SEAMING  OUTSIDE  SEAM  ON  TROU 


SERS. 


FIG.  27.— MACHINE    FDD    c-ri-r/^. 


( 


T 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


FIG    28.-LAP-SEAM  FELLING  MACHINE. 


VAS    TO 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


FIG.  29.-PANTS-FLIES  MACHINE. 


y 


PIG.  30.— FLY  BUTTONHOLES  MADE  BY   MACHINE. 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


FIG.  31.— BINDING  MACHINE. 


-^PP 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


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Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34 


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Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34, 


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FIG.  34.-COAT  BEFORE   IT  IS  LINED. 

Canvas  coat  front  in  position.  The  canvas  front  is  securely  tacked  to  the  Docket  rblack 
stitchingj.  The  canvas  on  the  lapel  is  closely  padded  by  hand  to  the  coat  the  whitR 
band  along  the  edge  of  the  coat  is  tape  to  keep  the  various  parts  n  place.  The  sh^?ter 
tape,  which  begins  on  the  collar  and  runs  part  way  down  the  lapel,  is  to  keep  the  laotl 
and  collar  in  shape  and  make  them  fit  the  neck  closely.  The  wh  ite  strip  at  the  pocklt 
Sppn5h.°n^  'r.T^  up  toward  the  armhole  are  knoXn  as  linen  stays,  placed  th^e re  to 
keep  the  pocket  from  tearing  or  sagging  when  heavy  articles  are  carried. 


I  \l 


FIG.  35.-FRONT  OF  COAT. 


'wmmmsmmim 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


FIG.  36.-INSIDE  OF  COAT. 

"^ li^nrnTist^nedTo%'h^%''o^«?'""if,"tK  ^°'^J^l^^  ^^^  'material  before  the  sleeve 
lining  IS  Teiied  to  the  coat.     All  these  basting  stitches  are  put  in  by  hand. 


y 


FIG.  37.— BACK  OF  COAT. 

The  white  stitches  along  the  edge  of  the  armhole  are  done  by  hand,  and  at  each  stitch  the  cloth  is 
drawn  in,  which  makes  the  coat  fit  snugly  into  the  arm  and  at  the  same  time  provides  sufficient 
fullness  over  the  shoulder  blade  to  g  ive  the  back  of  the  coat  correct  shape. 


^ 


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I.N'TENTIONAL     SECOND  EXPOSURE 


Miscellaneous  Series  No.  34. 


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INAYd    m 


» 


*0|; 


END  OF 

TITLE 


